LIBR CONGRESS. 

- 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE 



ART OF TEACHING 



BY 

JOHN OGDEN, A.M. 

Principal of the Ohio Central Normal School; Author of "Science of Education, 
"Outlines of Pedagogical Science," etc. 



M 

379. ^/J 



VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO. 
CINCINNATI. NEW YORK. 



LBl<U5 
.03 



COPYRIGHT, 1879, 

BY 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG <fc CO. 



PREFACE 



A firm conviction that all the essentials pertaining to Ed- 
ucation as a Science, and to Teaching as an Art, can be 
formulated into a system suited to the needs and conven- 
iences of normal-school and private learners, has led to the 
preparation of this volume. 

It deals exclusively with those questions and duties that 
relate to the teacher's work, such as organization, study, recita- 
tion, government, etc. of schools of various grades, together 
with some special methods of teaching the branches them- 
selves. 

It is the author's opinion, formed and strengthened through 
a quarter of a century's almost exclusive labor in normal 
schools and teachers' institutes, that by far the greater number 
of mistakes and failures in teaching is attributable to the want 
of a consistent system, and of a practical knowledge of the 
duties involved, rather than to any essential lack of the 
knowledge to be imparted, however great, in general, that 
want may be. More depends upon the manner of imparting 
and enforcing truth, than upon the mere possession of it, as 
such. 

Hence the very great importance of professional training, to 
supplement, and to classify and make vital, the mere acquisi- 
tion of knowledge in the several branches of science. 

This implies true method, the acquisition of which, so far at 
least as this depends upon professional training, proceeds upon 

(Hi) 



IV PREFACE. 

the plan that the child must be studied first, in all its physical 
and psychical characteristics and relations, as a thing or object 
to be treated or educated ; second, that the study of science or 
knowledge must be pursued, not as an end, but as a means for ac- 
complishing an end, viz., the development and refinement of all 
of man's faculties, soul and body; third, that the study and prac- 
tice of methods in harmony with the end to be attained, viz., the 
complete development of these faculties by the harmonious 
blending of all possible educational forces in the exercises of 
the school-room, must be the one great aim of the true teacher. 
These are the leading features underlying this system, to 
which the student of pedagogics is earnestly invited. 

Worthington, Ohio, July 25, 1879. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

INTRODUCTION 7 

CHAPTER FIRST— SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES 7 

Article I. Preliminaries 10 

Section I. Opening Exercises 10 

Section II. Organization 19 

Section III. Assigning Lessons 30 

CHAPTER SECOND— STUDY 43 

Article I. Objects and Ends 45 

Article II. Requisites and Modes 51 

Article III. Means of Securing Study Gl 

CHAPTER THIRD— RECITATJON 85 

Article I. Objects and Aims 85 

Article II. Conditions and Requisites 92 

Article III. Methods Ill 

Article IY. Specific Methods.. 139 

CHAPTER FOURTH— SCHOOL BUSINESS 155 

Article I. Objects, etc 156 

Article II. Requisites, etc 166 

Article III. Mode of Conducting 172 

CHAPTER FIFTH— RECREATION 179 

Article I. Necessity and Objects 180 

Article II. Requisites, etc 187 

Article III. The Varieties 194 

CHAPTER SIXTH— SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 205 

Article I. Objects and Means 207 

Article II. Qualifications and Requisites 241 

Article III. Qualities and Methods 245 

(v) 



S-Y-35TOFSIS X. 



Opening Exer- 
cises. 



f Reading the Scriptures. 
J Singing. Chanting. 
(__ Prayer. 



Organization. 



Enrollment and seating, etc. 
Examination and classification. 
Order of Exercises. 



Definiteness. Extent. Not too much assigned 
3K Lkssoxs!'° ° F "J at once. Points of interest and difficulty. Man- 
ner of recitation named. 



(vi: 



ART OF TEACHING. 



CHAPTER I. 

SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

We come now to consider that part of the Science 
of Education, which relates more particularly to 
school-keeping, or special Didactics, — that part in 
which the special applications are shown, — that part 
for which the author's previous work on the subject 
has in some degree, it is hoped, prepared the mind of 
the student. 

It might he thought by some to be sufficient had 
we confined ourselves exclusively to this department 
of the science; but it must be apparent to any one, 
on mature reflection, that to commence the subject 
here, would be to commence it in the middle ; it would 
be to take things for granted, whose truths had never 
been demonstrated. It would be downright empir- 
icism. It would be like the attempt of the merest 
charlatan to establish a science upon naked as- 
sumption, or upon a limited number of experiments; 
and it has been shown in another place, that experi- 
ment is no science or any part thereof. What is true 
m the individual case, is of no determinative value until 
it can be si i own that all possible cases, falling under 
the same head, are true also. Individual facts, there- 

(7) 



O THE ART OF TEACHING. 

fore, prove nothing conclusively in establishing gen- 
eral truths, until they can be generalized. Experi- 
ments are useful chiefly in discovery, and, so far as 
they go, they give good testimony ; but their employ- 
ment in the establishment of general principles, would 
prove rather tedious for this utilitarian age. Hence 
we must have general truths in all sciences whose 
principles are susceptible of demonstration. From 
these we may deduce specialties. 

This seems to be the precise character of this sci- 
ence. It answers to all the conditions. The fact is, 
for every operation in nature there is a cause ; and 
every step in growth or education has its antecedents. 
Every act performed is either right or wrong. There 
are no indifferent ones ; and every thing done in school 
is either of one class or the other. If the act is right, 
there is a reason for it, which may be sought out, 
generalized, and made a guide to subsequent acts and 
investigators. If it is wrong, there is also a reason 
for it, which may be demonstrated and developed in 
such a way that it may become a warning to ah who 
pass over that same way. 

The whole subject of special didactics, therefore, 
may thus be referred to general laws, whose principles 
underlie the whole superstructure of human culture. 
Every step in practice, if it is a right s f ,ep, is only the 
application of a general principle to a particular case, 
and can therefore be referred back to theory or gen- 
eral principles for authority ; so that there may be as 
much definiteness, nay, certainty, in the art of teaching, 
when once it is thoroughly apprehended, as in any 
other art. The very existence of the science of edu- 
cation and art of teaching, as we have before shown, 
is predicated upon this truth. But this discussion 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 9 

will not be continued further than merely to show 
the connection and mutual dependence of theory and 
practice, or general and special didactics. 

In presenting the practical part of this subject, 
special attention will be given, not only to methods 
of teaching and learning, but to the reference of these 
to the general principles discussed heretofore ; so 
that nothing may seem to be taken for granted, or 
adopted without authority. The whole, therefore, 
will have the appearance, at least, of a perfect system. 

The Home and Miscellaneous Duties have already, 
to a great extent, been disposed of. As far as it will 
become necessary to refer to them again, they will be 
blended with those of the school-room, since their 
nature and influence are so similar. 

The topics for consideration have been named in the 
introduction to the Science of Education, and may, 
we believe, be made to include every thing pertaining 
to the duties of teaching and managing schools; and 
what is one of the most interesting features is the 
exact coincidence of the two parts, or of the science 
and the art. Not a single application in the latter, 
that does not find its principle in the former. Not a 
stroke in art that does not find its counterpart in 
science. The one is the echo of the other. 

The topics for investigation are the following, which 
we propose to take up in the order in which they 
occur: 1, Preliminaries; 2, Study ; 3, Recitation ; 4, 
Business ; 5, Recreation ; 6, Government. 

In the discussion of these topics we propose to con- 
sider the young teacher about to assume, it may be for 
the first time — the duties and responsibilities of his 
office. We shall attempt to meet and dispose of every 
duty and difficulty that he will be likely to encounter. 



10 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Article 1— Preliminaries. 

Under this head we propose to consider every thing 
that relates to the organization of schools, the open- 
ing exercises, and the mode of assigning lessons and 
making preparation for study. 

Section 1 — Opening Exercises. — We place these 
first, because we think, in point of time, they stand 
first; and because we believe the organization and 
other duties can be much more easily conducted after 
those exercises have been disposed of in a proper 
manner. 

I believe it is universally admitted that those per- 
sons succeed best in their pursuits, of whatever char- 
acter they are, who attach the greatest importance to 
them ; that their success is usually measured by their 
devotion, and the estimation in which they hold their 
employment, other things being equal. So, to apply 
the same principle to teaching, I have found, almost 
without exception, that those teachers who were actu- 
ated by a deep and abiding sense of the responsibili- 
ties of their calling, have succeeded best. The fact is, 
that Providence, however provident he may be, 
does not usually help those who do not help them- 
selves. Much less will he help those who ignore his 
existence, and consequently will not apply to him for 
aid. A great many of our teachers fail for want of 
earnestness. They do not take hold of their work 
as if they felt their souls wrapped up in it. They 
set a low estimate upon their duties and labors, and it 
can not be expected that their scholars will do more. 
They fail to command that respect for themselves and 
for the school which is so necessary to success. The 
stream will rise no higher than the fountain. To 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 11 

make others feel, we must feel ourselves. To warm 
their hearts, the fire must burn within our own bosoms. 
An iceberg emits no rays of heat, however majestic it 
may stand. The north wind seldom breaks the fetters 
of winter, and wakes the young flowers to life; but 
the silent, unobtrusive rays of the sun penetrate the 
very heart of Nature, and start the warm currents of 
her life-blood through every vein and artery in her 
broad bosom. So that native earnestness and unde- 
viating honesty, which spring up in the heart deeply 
imbued with a love for the calling, will usually melt 
down the hardest cases and surmount the most inveter- 
ate difficulties, though other qualifications may be by 
no means extraordinary. 

Again : others fail for want of system. I am per- 
suaded that the errors and failures in teaching are 
more the result of a want of system or ability to use 
knowledge than from any want of knowledge itself. 
It is said that " knowledge is power," und in the sense 
in which that maxim is generally understood, it is 
true ; but knowledge is not power any further than it 
can be wielded to accomplish results, any more than 
a huge, overgrown body void of sense or reason is 
power. It is powerful perhaps in the same sense as the 
earthquake, the volcano or the hurricane is powerful ; 
powerful for mischief and destruction; powerful, it 
may be, like the locomotive, — uuable to accomplish a 
single good result, until directed by the skillful hand 
of the engineer. Such is mere knowledge without 
sj^stem. 

I am persuaded, also, that without system, at least 
one half of the teacher's power is as good as thrown 
away, since it is expended, for the most part, in mis- 
directed efforts; that with the same amount of scien- 



12 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

tific knowledge now possessed by the profession of 
teachers, twice the amount of good might be accom- 
plished, were this vast force directed by some well- 
digested plan of operation. No one can succeed in 
any department of business without a system or a plan 
by which to work. If farmers, merchants, mechanics 
and business men generally, manifested no more con- 
cern about their employment, and worked as objectless 
and aimless as many teachers do, there would be uni- 
versal failure and bankruptcy all over the land. Sys- 
tem guides and gives success to the military general in 
his battles and campaigns. It guides the scholar in 
his investigations, and the statesman in his legislation. 
In a word, the worlds are guided by it, in their cease- 
less whirl in space. The seasons go and come accord- 
ing to the plan laid down for their observance; and 
day and night are perpetual in their round. Sys- 
tem reigns in every department of nature and of suc- 
cessful art. It is the secret of success every-where else, 
and it would not seem probable that teaching forms 
any exception, save that the necessity seems greater 
here, in proportion to the greatness of the duties and 
responsibilities. 

This want of system in teaching comes, in the great 
majority of cases, from a want of a clear understand- 
ing of the intention and importance of the duties, and 
a frank acknowledgment of them in the presence of 
the school. ISTo school can succeed well, when there 
is not this clear understanding and cordial reciprocity 
on the part of all concerned. I know of no better 
way of bringing about this state of things, than for 
the teacher to lead off in the matter, not waiting for 
parent or pupil, but to show by his conduct and con- 
versation, that he is deeply in earnest in this matter. 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 13 

But earnestness without prudence, will avail but little. 
Great energy without skill, would resemble the loco- 
motive without a hand to guide it ; and great powers 
minus humility, would become offensive and nugatory 
where great interests are at stake. 

Let us instance two cases to illustrate the point. 
One teacher, with hat in hand, and blustering, it may 
be, from his recent exertion, enters the school-room 
about the time to open the school. Presently a rapid 
succession of heavy raps, or the loud ringing of the 
bell is heard in the vicinity of the teacher's desk; and 
through all, and above all,*the stentorian voice of the 
teacher is heard calling to order (?). By repeated 
effort, and great exertions, this is so far accomplished 
at length, that one accustomed to such scenes would 
hardly be mistaken as to the intention, at least. Order 
being thus far secured, without one moment's reflec- 
tion, to say nothing about opening exercises of a 
formal character, the classes are called, and the teacher 
and pupil rush into the arena of duties tc contend and 
toil, to fret and sweat (I will not say swear), over the 
day's difficulties. 

Now, we submit, are the minds of teacher and 
scholars in a proper frame to encounter such perplex- 
ing duties as will most likely meet them? If for no 
other purpose than merely to afford time for a few 
moments' reflection, and opportunity to call in their 
thoughts, and to place them on the duties in which 
they are about to engage, it would be desirable to 
have a portion of time set apart for some formal open- 
ing exercises. 

Take another example. The teacher enters the 
room quietly, unobtrusively, and in ample time to take 
a general survey of persons and things before the houi 



14 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

for opening the school arrives. Presently a gentle, 
but well-known signal is heard, and all are quietly 
seated in their proper places. A moment or two of 
silence elapses, during which time all are listening and 
expecting ; and then there break forth from the stand, 
in subdued but earnest tones, the blessed words well 
chosen from the Bible. The teacher reads, but his 
soul is full of the inspiration from that holy book, and 
he bears the shafts of Divine truth to the hearts and con- 
sciences of those that hear. His remarks are pointed, 
and mostly bearing upon the duties and difficulties of 
the day. But hark! a hymn of praise now rises from 
that little band, and echoes from the hillside and the 
forest. And now all is hushed again, save one earnest, 
pleading voice devoutly imploring Divine favor. The 
scene closes, and the sunbeams of joy steal in uncon- 
sciously upon those confiding hearts, and all their an- 
ger and dark suspicions, if they entertained any, have 
melted away like frost-work before the sun, under the 
beam of Divine Truth. Now, are not these hearts, 
these minds, in a better condition for study and recita- 
tion than those in our first picture? 

There may be those in the school who would affect 
indifference to these things, and so they might, were 
the heavens to fall ; but that affected indifference 
would not screen them from the influences thus 
brought to bear upon them. These things will com- 
mend themselves to their sober judgments; and if 
consistently and persistently prosecuted, they can not 
tail to produce the happiest results. But it is not 
our purpose to dictate. We only wish to present 
the case fairly, and allow teachers to chose for them- 
selves. To this end, we suggest the following exer- 
cises, any one or all of which may, as shall seem best 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 15 

to the teacher, be adopted as appropriate opening 
exercises. 

1. Beading the Scriptures. — The reasons for this exer- 
cise may be briefly summed up as follows : 

1. The children need moral and religious instruction 
as we have shown, and as everybody admits. This is 
a most favorable time, when their minds are clear and 
vigorous to apprehend those truths. 

2. It offers the best possible opportunity to make 
impressions. The words of inspiration have more 
force than any others, simply because they are in- 
spired. No mere human words or composition can 
have the effect that these have, when read and felt by 
the teacher himself. 

8. It prepares the way for successful study and in- 
struction in other departments. It opens the heart 
and the mind to receive and impart the truth, which 
will grow all the better for being watered thus daily 
by the dews of Divine Inspiration. 

4. It offers the very best opportunity to smite down 
some of those vicious habits that may be making in- 
roads upon the school. It would not be wise, perhaps, 
to take special pains to make it bear upon these points; 
but the silent influence of the Word itself will prove 
sufficient, in most cases, to work the reform. 

The manner of conducting this part of the opening 
exercises, will be left to the judgment of the teacher, 
with these simple suggestions, that while some w T ould 
succeed best with one plan, others might adopt a dif- 
ferent one and succeed equally as well. I have known 
most charming results produced in primary and secom 
dary schools, by the whole school's repeating the Lord's 
Prayer in concert. The same may be done with portions 
of Christ's Sermon on the Mount, and selections from 



16 THE ART OP TEACHING 

the Psalms. Then again, I have seen a whole school, 
teacher and all, affected even to tears, by a careful and 
earnest reading, explanation and application of some of 
the most interesting portions of holy writ. The historic 
parts of both the Old and New Testament are suitable. 
Others again I have known to succeed best by joining 
with some or all of their pupils in reading. But what- 
ever may be the form, children should be taught to 
regard the reading of the Bible with more interest and 
earnest attention than they do other books. Other- 
wise there is great danger of their coming to regard it, 
by and by, of no greater value. It may become unto 
them " a savor of life unto life, or of death unto 
death." It is a sharp, two-edged sword for good or 
ill. It is an educational instrumentality, of such force 
that no teacher can afford to do without it ; and it is 
to be devoutly hoped that the time is past when its 
use will be objected to. It is suitable for all conditions 
of the human race, but is used to greatest advantage 
when the passages are carefully and wisely selected 
for the occasion. It then acts like a charm upon the 
heart. There are storms of troubled passions there. 
But Christ's words, "Peace, be still!" that echoed 
from wave to wave over the troubled waters of the 
sea of Galilee, were scarcely more potent to produce a 
calm than these passages Avill become when properly 
selected, and read with the right spirit. 

2. Singing is an exercise, at once, so appropriate 
and so common, that it needs no argument to recom- 
mend it. There is scarcely any excuse for not prac- 
ticing it in school ; for if the teacher can not sing, 
some or perhaps all the pupils can, and all that is 
necessary is to grant them permission, and the thing 
is done; perhaps not in the most approved style, but 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 17 

time and practice will improve it. Of course, it need 
not be confined to the opening exercises. It may 
mingle with all others. It will gladden and enliven 
all. All know the magic power of music to subdue the 
passions, to cultivate the voice, and to refine the feel- 
ings. Let its sweet strains, therefore, mingle freely in 
all the exercises of the schoolroom. For the opening 
exercises, such selections should be made as shall com- 
port with the occasion, and should be so arranged, if 
possible, as to allow all to participate. 

There is one particular mode of singing, fast com- 
ing into use in the schools, which seems to possess 
merits for opening exercises, surpassing all others, 
viz. : the chant. It does seem that nothing can be 
more appropriate than this, when the whole school 
can unite in chanting the praises of God, morning 
and evening, for what we have said of opening exer- 
cises is mainly true of the closing. 

3. Prayer. After what has been said of reading 
the Scriptures, and singing etc., the arguments in 
favor of prayer* or some form of devotion might be 
inferred. It is the crowning excellence of all the rest, 
as it is a virtual acknowledgement of allegiance to 
God, and of dependence upon him. It more than all 
others, will show the teacher to be deeply in earnest. 
Of course, it presupposes that every teacher should be 
a good man; for who else should teach? Not the 
bad man surely ! And there are but these two classes. 
Therefore the argument runs thus. All good men 
pray ; none but good men should teach ; therefore 
teachers should pray. 

But it is not our purpose to proscribe those who do 
not; for we believe that many excellent teachers do 
not presume to pray, for conscience' sake, or because 

9 



18 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

they do not make a public profession of religion. 
I honor and respect such ; but I can not avoid the 
conviction that their excellencies would be very much 
enhanced, could they consistently add this other grace 
also. It would sanctify and intensify every other 
power. And it would seem, on a careful examination, 
that if there is any one duty in all the wide range of 
human duties that demands prayer, it is that of teach- 
ing. If there is one position in life in which a man 
needs Divine guidance, that position is the one in 
which the training of human beings is concerned. 
Add to this the moral effects of prayer upon both 
pupil and teacher, and its claims are set beyond a 
shadow of a doubt. 

Now, if this form of opening exercises be objected 
to by any on the plea of want of time, let such be 
answered as follows : That if these things are of the 
importance claimed for them, then they have as much 
claim upon the time of the school-roomas any others; 
and it would be just as unreasonable to quibble about 
the time devoted to recitation in Grammar or Arith- 
metic, as about this. And when it is considered how 
much these exercises really add to the sum total of 
education, not only by preparing the minds and hearts 
of pupils, etc., but in actual instruction in matters of 
the most vital importance, it will readily be seen that 
so far from being any loss of time, it is actually time 
saved. u To study w T ell is to have prayed well," was 
a maxim of one of the greatest students and reform- 
ers the world ever knew; and it is not without its 
application here. But the time thus employed need 
not occupy more than ten or fifteen minutes at the 
most, and often it can be brought within the compass 
of seven or eight. 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 



19 



Sec. 2— Organization.— The organization of schools 
is of so much importance, that its claims to a separate 
hearing can not be set aside without very much im- 
pairing the completeness of the plan we have marked 
out. The efficiency and success of the school depend 
so essentially upon a thorough and systematic organ- 
ization, that teachers should study this subject with as 
much care as they do any other, relating to the school. 

At the commencement of a term of school, the great 
anxiety of the teacher seems to be, to begin the hear- 
ing of classes; but it will be found that time may be 
saved, as well as perplexity avoided, by a little care 
and attention at the outset. A week, or even ten days 
may be spent to great advantage in organizing and 
trying the machinery, before starting oft' for the term, 
especially if the school be a new one. This will be 
found to be much better than to commence the first 
or second day with an imperfect organization, only to 
run into difficulty, and expose the teacher and pupils 
to the mortification of a reorganization and perhaps 
a failure. The examinations and other general exer- 
cises which will be described by-and-by, will afford 
ample employment for both teacher and pupil until 
the regular exercises begin. 

Another reason why teachers should not be hasty in 
completing the organization of their schools, especially 
if they are unacquainted with their pupils, is found in 
a want of a mutual understanding between the parties. 
Teachers need time to observe and study the capacity, 
advancement and natural inclinations and dispositions 
of their pupils; and they, in turn, stand equally in 
need of time to make a similar acquaintance. The 
exercises about to be recommended afford these oppor- 
tunities in due proportion. 



20 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

I have sometimes made this remark to teachers that 
were about going out, perhaps for the first time, to 
engage their schools ; and the recommendation may 
not be inappropriate here, viz. : that if they can spare 
the time, they should spend at least a week in visiting 
the families of the neighborhood or district, for the 
purpose of getting acquainted with the parents and 
children, and with the influences that have been, and 
still may be operating upon them ; or in other words, 
to learn their antecedents ; for no teacher is prepared 
to give direction and instruction to a child until he 
knows something of its capacity and antecedents. In 
the ordinary way of organizing, he is left without any 
means of knowing, except that which is afforded by a 
very imperfect acquaintance, acquired in the ordinary 
recitation. 

Let him not go on these visitations, however, as a 
pedagogue, or as one whose special business it is to 
instruct ; or he may not find those who are willing to 
learn from so green a disciple. Let him not go to 
lecture the parents upon their duties, etc., and to 
frighten the children and old ladies with his immense 
learning; or he may breed contempt in the minds of 
those who are as wise as himself. But let him go, 
rather, as a friend to converse and counsel with, and 
receive instruction from them, in reference to their 
labors, daily duties, habits and wishes; and he will 
acquire more valuable information in a half-day's 
friendly intercourse, than he would in a whole week's 
recitation, simply because he then comes in direct 
contact with the real boys and girls, which is not 
always the case at school. He may thereby avoid 
errors, which if committed, will lead to the defeat of 
his most sanguine purposes. How often has the 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 21 

teacher had reason for sorrow and repentance for his 
treatment of children, after learning what those poor 
little ones have to contend with at home ! Teacher, 
look well to your children's homes, if you would 
educate them. 

Again : a thorough and systematic organization of 
the school, before starting off, will do much to con- 
vince the pupils, both of the importance of their duties 
and of the ability of the teacher to conduct them. A 
few master-strokes here (I do not mean strokes from 
the master) will give him a greater ascendency over his 
pupils, than any or all the other kinds of strokes he 
may employ subsequently. Whereas, a few mistakes 
will hav.e a tendency to sink him correspondingly low 
in their estimation. 

Many teachers fail from this cause. They come 
before the school, perhaps for the first time in their 
iives, without any definite or well digested plan. The 
consequence is, they are embarrassed. They hesitate 
and halt in the performance of their duties ; and how- 
ever wise they may pretend to be, and however 
earnestly they may labor, nothing will conceal from 
the lynx-eyed children (and they read motives by 
intuition) the lamentable deficiency, or save him from 
exposure. He may struggle, but his embarrassment 
will increase ; and at every successive blunder, he will 
sink lower and lower in their estimation, and deeper 
and deeper into difficulty, until his resurrection be- 
comes impossible. 

But take an example of a teacher well versed in 
didactics; one who has wisdom and a plan, and dis- 
patch to execute it. He comes before his school, 
without ostentation or embarrassment. He knows 
what is the first thing to be done, and the second, 



22 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

and the third, and so on. He disposes of them in their 
proper order, and in such a manner as to convince his 
pupils that " knowledge is indeed power." The whole 
is completed with that eminent ability which proves 
him to be a master workman. And what is the effect 
upon the pupils ? They yield their willing and un- 
qualified submission ; and the teacher rises, at each 
successive step, until he stands before them an em- 
bodiment of power. Such a teacher can teach. Such 
also is the effect of system, or a studied plan of opera- 
tion. This alone is argument sufficient to convince 
any one, that there is something more than mere 
familiarity with the branches of study necessary to 
secure success in teaching. No amount of mere scien- 
tific acquirements can compensate for this deficiency 
in professional skill. This must be learned some- 
where, either before or after the teacher commences 
his duties. It were better far to learn it before, since 
this may save him from a world of mortification and 
perhaps failure, and his pupils from a still worse 
calamity. 

The opening exercises disposed of in a manner 
similar to that described under that topic, the school 
now is supposed to be in a condition to favor a good, 
thorough organization. 

There is, however, one thing common to the rural 
districts, which usually operates against such an organ- 
ization. It is the want of a full attendance of the 
pupils, the first few days of school. But the plan 
proposed will, in some measure, meet that difficulty 
and greatly relieve it; since it delays the complete 
organization until a greater number can be present. It 
is to be regretted, however, that parents can not see 
the utter hopelessness of a respectable organization, 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 23 

where the children are delayed in their attendance 
until the second or third week of school. It is of the 
utmost importance, therefore, that the children be 
present on the very first opening of the school. Par- 
ents ought to know, and feel too, that every hour 
any scholar delays in entering the school, is not only 
so much time lost, and worse than lost to him, but 
that he actually inflicts a wound upon the school, in 
interrupting and delaying its organization. 

What, for instance, would be thought of the wisdom 
of a neighborhood that had adopted as one of its reg- 
ulations, that no one should be allowed to commence 
the spring plowing until every other one was willing 
and ready to commence also ; and that if some few of 
them had taken advantage of the pleasant weather, 
and had actually done a part of their work, that they, 
forsooth, because their lazy neighbors were not ready, 
must unplov) or unsow that which their industry 
secured? And yet this policy resembles, in no slight 
degree, the wisdom and justice of sending pupils to 
school after the school is organized, and compelling 
the reorganization to accommodate them. 

Or what would be thought of the wisdom of that 
farmer, for instance, w T ho was about sowing his wheat, 
but, forsooth, because he had not seed enough pre- 
pared when the time came for sowing, instead of pre- 
paring more, should go on and sow what he had, over 
the whole field; and then wait a week or two, until 
the grain sown had got fairly growung, and then 
sow another sowing and harrow it in, right among the 
tender shoots of the growing grain ; and then again, 
along in May of the next year, when the crop began 
to spring, he should discover that it was not quite 
right yet, and should sow the residue of his grain, and 



24 THE ART OF TEACHING. . 

harrow it in as before, right among the growing grain ? 
Why, such a man would be thought a fit subject for 
an insane asylum, and so it would seem ; but a policy 
very much like this is practiced in nearly all our 
country schools. What kind of a crop would that 
man reap, if he reaped any at all ? It w r ould resemble 
very much the intellectual and moral harvests that are 
too frequently gathered in many of our schools. That 
growing grain thus mutilated by repeated additions, 
is but too apt a type of many of our schools, dis- 
turbed and rent asunder by a fresh arrival of pupils 
every few weeks. But until parents can see this evil 
in its true light, it w T ere better perhaps to endure it 
for a time, and provide for its removal as soon as 
possible. 

One of the first steps in the organization of the 
school, is the enrollment and seating of ipwpils. This, 
though apparently a small matter, offers an excellent 
opportunity for the teacher to exhibit that skill and 
wisdom which are to give him command over his 
pupils. There is a right way and a wrong way in 
everything, and the principle descends even to this 
small duty. If the teacher do those duties well, the 
pupils will give him credit for it; if he do them ill, 
they will place it on the debit side, and woe be to that 
teacher, if, w r hen the balance is struck, the debit should 
exceed the credit. 

• It is not our purpose, how 7 ever, to recommend any 
particular method of doing this duty, to the exclusion 
of all others. The great diversity of the form and 
manner of seating in school-rooms, and other circum- 
stances, would forbid this. But we shall indicate a 
few plans which will, most likely, prove suggestive to 
teachers. 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 25 

1. The teacher needs a general roll, for reference 
and other purposes, and it should be arranged in 
alphabetic order. He therefore makes this announce- 
ment to the school, explains its use, and says, "All 
whose names (meaning the family name) begin with 
A, will please to arise." As fast as their names are 
called and recorded, they take their seats. The letter 
B is called in a similar manner, and so on through all 
the letters. 

This exercise also offers a fine opportunity for the 
teachers to learn the names of his pupils — a matter of 
no trifling importance — to make general remarks, and 
to become somewhat acquainted. A similar course 
might be pursued in forming class rolls also. This 
matter well done, will impress the school with the 
idea that order prevails every-where; that it is one of 
the first and firmest laws of nature ; and its appear- 
ance here will be greeted with respect, to say the least. 

2. The next step, perhaps, is seating the pupils. In 
this matter the teacher will have to be governed some- 
what by the form and size of the room, and the posi- 
tion and arrangement of the seats. In most instances 
he will find it to result in the greatest convenience, to 
seat the larger pupils in one part of the room, and the 
smaller ones in the other, placing the larger ones back, 
and so grading the school forward that the smaller 
ones shall occupy the seats nearest the teachers desk. 
This will give the school"an orderly appearance. ~No 
one likes to see a large boy and a very small, one 
occupying the same seat. It is out of proportion and 
disorderly. It resembles too much a team composed 
of one very large horse and a very small one, or a 
mule harnessed with an elephant. The objection, 
that this plan would prevent children who wish to 

3 



26 THE ART OF TEACHING 

study together, or who wish to be together for any 
other purpose, is not a valid one. Since to prevent 
this is the very thing aimed at, it is the chief excel- 
lency of the measure. Children should not be per- 
mitted, as a general thing, to assist each other in their 
lessons, but should be taught to rely upon their own 
individual exertions, as we shall have occasion to re- 
mark more at length when we come to notice the topic 
of study. The practice of studying together, and 
assisting and prompting each other, is ruining thou- 
sands of scholars in our schools. It destroys that self- 
reliance and independence so necessary to make a man. 

Again: this plan would prevent any noise and mis- 
chief, which are sure to be the result when the practice 
is allowed to any extent. It will be found also where 
children are allowed to select their own seats, without 
any general system, that if there happen to be two or 
three mischievous ones (and such cases, I believe, are 
not unsupposablc), they will be sure to get together 
"to have a good time." Now all this may be prevent- 
ed. All these evil combinations may be broken up, 
by a judicious arrangement; and the teacher should 
have the entire management of the seating of the 
pupils in the school. The effect of this arrangement 
may easily be anticipated. The pupils will see, at 
once, the propriety of it, and w T ill say within them- 
selves, if not audibly, " well, I think there is going to 
be something done this term.'* " I wonder if it would 
not be best for me to fall right in ranks, and assist in 
carrying out these plans ? " "I see plainly that the 
teacher knows something, and that mischief and idle- 
ness will not pay, this term." Such will be the mental 
cogitations of the pupils. 

The matters of enrollment and seating disposed of, 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 27 

the next item of importance will be the examination 
and classification of the pupils. These will constitute 
the great burden of the organization. Too much pains, 
therefore, can not be taken with them. It requires the 
greatest care and discrimination, combined with the 
most unflinching integrity, to perform this duty well- 
A hundred and one reasons will perhaps be offered, 
both by child and parent, showing why " so and so" 
should be put into this class or that; all of which are 
to be heard and disposed of. And, while I would not 
encourage obstinacy or self-conceit on the part of 
the teacher, yet I would have him distinctly to under- 
stand, that it is his exclusive prerogative, to determine 
the position, in classes, of every scholar in school. He 
should not assert this prerogative, however, without 
duly considering all the circumstances, cautiously con- 
sulting the wishes of all parties, and receiving all the 
instruction possible from whatever source. The teach- 
er is supposed to know better than any one else, what 
will be the best for the child in school. If he does 
not, he ought not to teach. 

Again : some one must have the general direction 
of affairs. If that person is not the teacher, pray, 
who should it be ? What would be the condition of 
the school, for instance, provided every little Master 
or Miss, every fond mother or doting father — to say 
nothing about the grandmas, aunts, and other func- 
tionaries interested — should "have a say" in the 
arrangement of affairs at school? ~No two opinions 
would agree, and anarchy and confusion would reign. 

But in rendering these decisions, examining the 
pupils, and arranging the classes, respect should be 
had to the following points: 



2S THE ART OF TEACHING. 

1st. To give the pupil credit for what he thinks he 
knows, as far as possible. 

2d. To give him credit for no more than he knows, 
proved upon careful examination. 

3d. To reserve the privilege of correcting any false 
notions in reference either to capacity or acquire- 
ments, and the right to determine his standing and 
position in class. 

This course will most likely disclose the following 
facts: that some scholars place too high an estimate 
upon their abilities ; that others, again, place that esti- 
mate too low ; and still another class that need spe- 
cial attention, viz., those who,through pure indolence, 
or a desire at least to escape from hard labor, will 
select classes and studies far below their abilities. 
Such need a special spur. 

The main point to be observed is, so to dispose of 
every member of the school, that as few changes as 
possible will be required after the school once com- 
mences in earnest ; for all who have had any experi- 
ence in these matters, know how demoralizing it is to 
all concerned, to be obliged to rip up the organization 
of classes, and to make changes, or to form new ones. 
To those pupils who have to be turned back in their 
studies, it becomes a matter of severe disappointment 
and discouragement. Their aspirations and anticipa- 
tions have been raised by an unwise step, only to be 
dashed to the ground ; and in too many instances, all 
hope perishes, and with it, the desire for study. Now 
a teacher has no right to treat a pupil in this manner. 
Hence the greater necessity for knowledge upon these 
points. And then again, to those who have to, be set 
forward, the evils are sometimes scarcely less ruinous. 



SCHOOL- ROOM DUTIES. 29 

Their pride and self-conceit, are often pampered, and 
indolence and superficial habits take the place of hon- 
est industry and frugality. 

In conclusion upon this topic, it is but justice to re- 
mark, that most of the evils here pointed out, are 
amply provided for, and the recommendations happily 
anticipated in our best organized union or graded 
schools. But the object of this work is, if possible, 
to bring the common district school up to a level with 
the union or graded school. 

The examination of pupils and the formation of 
classes completed, the scholars will begin to cast about 
them for some employment. This should be furnished 
them in exact measure, ^o time should be lost by 
the teacher, in furnishing them with an Order of Exer- 
cises. Much valuable time is lost, and much mischief 
concocted, from not providing for this want, from the 
beginning. Pupils may not really desire to be negli- 
gent or vicious; indeed, very few, if any, do; but in 
consequence of their not knowing exactly what to do, 
and, in some instances, not exactly caring about doing 
any thing, or not feeling the special necessity of labor, 
their duties are therefore neglected. But if a general 
order of exercises, stating the exact amount of labor, 
and the precise time of every recitation, and of eyery 
other duty, were placed in such a position that every 
pupil might see it, and learn just what to do; and 
when to do this, and when to do that, these tempta- 
tions would be, to a great extent, removed. There 
would be less excuse for ill-prepared lessons; for the 
lessons and time to prepare them, would all be meas- 
ured and balanced. The scholars have a right to 
know this arrangement ; and it will do more to form 
and strengthen the habits of regularity and industry, 



30 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

than any amount of lecturing and scolding that mav 
be bestowed upon them ; and then the very habits 
formed here, are the- ones that will follow them into 
the workshops, on the farm, into the office, counting- 
room, pulpit, bar or school-house. They are the ones 
that will render them successful or unsuccessful 
throughout an eventful career of life. The fact is, a 
great many of the evils we complain of most bitterly, 
in the school, are the results of some such mistakes, 
in not providing the scholars with the means for pro- 
secuting these duties. 

Another recommendation equally worthy of adop- 
tion, at least by all the larger members of the school, 
is the construction of a separate order for individual 
use, in which every hour and half-hour of the day, 
shall be provided for. Let one be written out by each 
individual pupil ; to meet his particular case; and, if 
need be, let it be revised by the teacher, and compared 
with others of similar character. This will cut oft* 
the last possible excuse for neglect of duty, and will 
have a tendency to make orderly and successful men 
and women, in whatever department of life they may 
chance to labor. But this plan will be described more 
fully, under the head of " Special Order of Daily 
Duties." 

Section 3 — Assigning Lessons. — There is still an- 
other duty which may be regarded as preliminary, 
though not in the sense in which the organization and 
opening exercises are. The first, it will be observed, 
is a preliminary which, if once disposed of properly, 
does not need repeating; the second is periodical, 
occurring each morning; but the third, or Assigning 
Lessons, is a duty that may occur every half-hour or 
less often ; it is preliminary or preparatory to study 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 31 

and recitation, and hence is not without its im- 
portance. 

It is laid down as a fundamental principle, in an- 
other part of this work, that the scholars will be gov- 
erned in their estimate, and consequent discharge of 
duty, by the estimation in which these duties are held 
by the teacher himself. If, therefore, carelessness and 
indifference are manifested by the teacher in assign- 
ing lessons, the same disposition will most likely be 
manifested by the pupils when preparing and reciting 
those lessons. For instance : after a hurried recitation 
in which, perhaps, not more than one half or two 
thirds of the previous lesson has been recited, the 
teacher says — hastily turning the leaf of the hook 
and glancing hurriedly at the contents, for the bell 
has rung, and, being a little behind, the next recitation 
is pressing hard upon him — " Here ! your lesson com- 
mences somewhere in the neighborhood of the or 

page, and may extend — let me see — how far can 

you go ? " (to which not very satisfactory or unan- 
imous answers are given) well, go as far as you can. " 
"Next class!" and the books are hastily closed and 
the pupils hurry to their seats, and make busy prepa- 
rations to do nothing, absolutely nothing! for 

the teacher most emphatically announced to them 
that task, by his failing to circumscribe the limits of 
their work. He said in the most forcible manner: 
•' Do just as you please ; " and they may please to do 
nothing. 

Now what kind of a recitation will that teacher meet 
when he next calls the class ? He ought not to expect 
any thing more or better than he gave ; and since he 
gave nothing, he should expect nothing. If he be 
thus modest in his expectations, he may not be disap- 



32 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

pointed ; but he is apt to expect more. The recitation 
is about to commence. One says, " Why, I thought 
the lesson commenced here;" another says, "No, 
there," a third, " I don't know where ; " but a fourth, 
with more roguery than honesty may say, " I didn't 
know there was any ;" and so it goes. One is called 
upon to recite. The question is asked, but the answer 
comes complainingly : " I didn't study that." "How 
perplexing!" (fortunate if nothing worse escape him,) 
sighs the poor teacher, chafed and worried by a suc- 
cession of such difficulties. Well, whose fault is it, 
teacher? Who set the example? If you want your 
pupils to be precise, prompt and faithful, you must be 
so yourself. If you would have them do the work, 
you must mark it out for them. 

What would you think of a carpenter, for instance, I 
who is about erecting a house, if he should go on 
the ground with a score of green hands, and commence 
in this wise, " Here, boys, are the timbers. Well, I 
want you to bore the holes, make the mortises, fit the 
tenons, square the beams, trim the braces and ties, 
make the doors and windows, and in fact do as well as 
you can ; now go to work." And they go to work 
" with a vengeance," every one doing what he thinks 
best (?) The frame is erected — and such a frame! 
What would you give, gentle readers, to see that house ? 
I venture to say you would give one groan at least. It 
might be no idolatry to fall down (if it didn't fall first) 
and worship it; for it would not have its likeness 
either on the earth, under the earth, in the sea or in 
the heavens. But bad as it is, it would be but too 
correct a likeness of the mental and moral habitations 
that are sometimes erected in our school-houses. The 
comparison can be readily carried out. 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 38 

Now, in such a case, a good workman would take a 
square and compasses, and, passing carefully from tim- 
ber to timber, would mark off, here a mortise, there a 
tenon, here a brace, there a tie, here a door, there a 
window, etc., until all is completed ; and then he 
might say with some propriety, " Here, boys, go to 
work." So a good teacher would take a book and 
pencil in hand, and calling the attention of the class, 
w r ould carefully mark off the lesson. He would say, in 
the first place, "The lesson commences precisely with 

the article, and extends to the article ; and 

every word and sentence is to be studied and recited." 
Hence definiteness as to place and extent is a matter first 
to be considered. The pupils should know just where 
a lesson commences and where it ends, and every 
thing else that will be demanded of them. This may 
be. tested by actual examination by the teacher before 
the class leaves the recitation seat, if there is any doubt 
about it. They then will have no excuse from that 
quarter for neglect of duty. It brings the matter 
under their immediate notice, and fastens it so upon 
the memory that there will be no escape from its 
claims. 

Again : care should be taken not to assign too 
much or too little. The tendencies are to err in the 
first extreme. In this case the mind soon wearies of 
fruitless endeavors to encompass much, and the result 
is that nothing is done well ; superficial habits are 
formed. The effects of this mania, "to get through 
books," are very discernible in all departments of 
business, especially in the western country, where the 
evil prevails to the greatest extent. It shows itself in 
fast living, in overweening desires, in hastening to be- 
come rich, in living beyond the means, and often in 



34 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

open bankruptcy. I have thought also that I could 
discover the results of too long lessons given in school, 
on some of our western farms, where an attempt is 
made to cultivate 200 or 300 acres of land, with 
means hardly adequate to cultivate 50 well. The 
results are broken-down fences, dilapidated buildings, 
inadequate cultivation, poor crops, briers in the fence 
corners, and a general appearance of slovenliness per- 
vading every thing; while in New England, where, to 
my certain knowledge, the lessons given in school are 
not more, than one-half so long, the farms and the 
way-side, and every thing, seems to wear an air of 
neatness and finish, which have been the subject of 
just praise by the traveler. May we not seek for the 
cause of this in the foregoing? Indeed I think we 
may safely conclude, that whatever errors or excel- 
lencies we behold in the walks of society, are but the 
reflections of the school and the family. The child's 
capacity should therefore be exactly measured, in as- 
signing a lesson, and just enough given to keep his 
powers in active exercise, for the requisite length of 
time, and then the labor should be remitted or changed. 
This, it is true, would require skill and wisdom ; but 
it is their claims we are trying to enforce. 

Again : to make the matter sure, there should be a 
distinct understanding, that no lesson is to be assigned 
twice for any cause, save the most unavoidable acci- 
dents. One of the prevailing errors in the present 
mode of teaching is the one of allowing the pupil to 
have two or three trials at the same lesson. They 
come to think, by and by, that they can not get a 
lesson the first time, and their efforts seldom exceed 
their expectations. The evil is brought about in this 
way : teachers give too long lessons in the first place ; 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 35 

in the second place, they do not take sufficient pre- 
cautions to secure the study of them; and in the third 
place, if the lessons are imperfect, as they most surely 
will be under these circumstances, they are assigned a 
second, third, or even a fourth and fifth time, before 
they are completed. Now, any one can see at a 
glance, that this is nothing more nor less than a bid on 
laziness. The pupil will console himself with reflec- 
tions like the following: "Well, though this is a 
pretty hard lesson, yet there is this consolation, that if 
I don't complete it now, I shall have another trial or 
two." " The master will be easy with me, and what 
I do not understand, he will explain." " I will there- 
fore get but a portion of it, or the whole imperfectly 
and complete it at another time." 

Now any one can see where this would lead ; and it 
would be safe to say that a very great part of the poor 
recitations, as well as of poor scholarship, may date 
existence to causes like these. There should therefore 
be a distinct understanding, that no lesson is to be as- 
signed a second or a third time, and that if a lesson is 
accidentally or carelessly lost, its loss falls only upon 
the unfortunate or guilty one. (The cases that might 
be regarded as exceptional will be noticed in another 
place.) This, I imagine, will do more than almost 
any one thing, to correct the evil habit of careless and 
superficial study. 

Another matter relating to preliminaries deserves 
attention, which, perhaps, will be more clearly under- 
stood by first showing the evils to be removed, and the 
benefits to be secured by its adoption. 

In almost every lesson, there are some interesting 
points that may not attract the attention of the 
learner, unless such attention is particularly called to 



30 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

them. They exist sometimes in a kind of undefined 
state, but only need to be pointed out, not explained, 
in order that they may be apprehended, and thus be- 
come strong incentives to study. History and geogra- 
phy abound in such matters, and no branch of study 
is, perhaps, entirely wanting in them. Again : there 
are also, in most studies, a greater or less number of 
points of difficulty, to which it may be well to direct 
the attention of the learner, especially if the lesson is 
a new one. 'Pupils are not unfrequently brought in 
contact with fehose things in a manner calculated rather 
to discourage them than to excite their energies. It 
would not be wise, therefore, to remove them entirely 
out of the way, but, rather, prepare their minds, as 
far as possible, to encounter thorn. The practice of 
merely defining the limits of a lesson, and saying to 
the pupil, " There, now study," is too much like taking 
him up to the border of a seemingly impenetrable 
forest, through which he is required to pass, and say- 
ing to him, " There, now pass through the best way 
you can." Would he not be more likely to accomplish 
this feat, more to his own pleasure and profit, and to 
the satisfaction of all parties, were the teacher to give 
him a little instruction, such, for instance, as the 
"points of the compass," the direction to go, etc., and 
to point out to him a few of the difficulties he will be 
most likely to encounter, giving him directions how 
to avoid them, rather than allow him to blunder 
through without such aid? 

Would he not be better prepared to meet those 
difficulties, and to enjoy those pleasures also, if the 
teacher should say, " At such and such a place, you 
will come to a steep mountain ; but its hight has 
been scaled, and you can ascend. The top affords you 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. -tf 

a most beautiful prospect. That passed, and you 
descend into a most delightful valley covered with a 
carpet of the richest verdure and flowers. You will 
not tarry nor rest in its borders, lest night overtake 
you. Next you will encounter a deep and rapid 
stream, bounded by high ledges of rocks, and flanked 
by deep ravines. But by the aid of some hanging 
boughs* that nature has kindly furnished for the 
traveler, you may safely swing yourself upon a plat- 
formf on the opposite side, erected for your accommo- 
dation, from which your passage will be easy. You 
next pass into a beautiful plain that ends ere long in 
a most dismal marsh. Here it will be necessary to 
exert the greatest caution, lest you plunge into some 
of those pools of water, or sink into some of those 
filthy quagmires that abound throughout its whole 
extent. But by carefully observing, and by making 
good use of that light J you hold in your hand, you will 
discover a narrow, graveled walk that leads to the 
opposite side, where your journey will terminate." 

Now, would not the prospect of pleasure and of 
daring adventure animate and nerve his limbs like 
steel to plunge into that forest, and to explore its 
wonders? So in reference to assigning lessons. The 
pupil knows but little of the difficulties, dangers and 
pleasures of the way. The teacher has been over the 
ground ; and, if he has been observing, he has marked 
all those points, and by pointing them out to the 
pupil, he prepares him also to encounter them. Or, 
to refer to our forest again — which, by the way, is a 
very good representation of a difficult lesson — let the 
teacher plant, as it were, a light at some distance from 

* Common sense. t Definitions. % The rule. 



38 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

the border, but within sight, so that the pupil's eye 
may catch its glimmering, and it will serve as a mark 
to guide him thither; and then another beyond, and 
so on, each one affording him light enough to carry 
him to the next, until the goal is reached. This, in 
effect, will be following the annexed direction, viz., 
To note the points of interest and difficulty, and give some 
general directions how to treat them. 

Again : pupils are sometimes perplexed to know 
how, or in what manner the lesson is to be prepared 
and recited, and the result may be a failure to get the 
lesson in the manner intended by the teacher. They 
may succeed, as they think, but when they come to 
recite, they are surprised, disappointed and chagrined, 
to find that they have entirely misapprehended the 
nature of the recitation. Now, it is their right and 
privilege to know the manner of recitation before they 
commence the study of the lesson. In the several 
branches, ample scope is afforded to point out how 
the leseon is to be recited. In reading, for instance, 
pupils should be apprized beforehand what particular 
feature of it will be made the special topic for the 
next recitation — whether loudness, distinctness, the 
high or low keys, or whatever variety may be named : 
or in grammar, whether it be analysis or synthesis, 
whether of words or sentences, and how; and so of 
other branches. Hence the manner in vMch the lesson 
is to be recited should be distinctly named. 

And lastly, it would not be wise to name or require 
all the things that relate to the various kinds of reci- 
tations at once. Suppose the teacher should say to a 
class in reading, for instance, " Now I want you to 
read this lesson to-morrow with the right degree of 
force or loudness, on the right key or pitch, neither 



SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES. 39 

too fast nor too slow, to articulate distinctly, to give 
the proper emphasis, to observe all. the pauses, cir- 
cumflexes, sweeps, bends, slides, closes, and every 
other variation." What would be the result? Most 
likely, that not one of these things would be observed, 
and the reason is quite obvious. It would be about 
as reasonable as to demand that a child should do 
as many different kinds of work, and to do them all 
well. Suppose you wished your boy to remove a pile 
of stone to a different quarter of the yard. He goes to 
work, but on your going to inspect the progress, you 
find him tugging and toiling to remove the whole pile 
at, once. You remonstrate with him ; but he says, 
" "Why, father, you told me to remove this pile of stone, 
and I am doing the best I can." " So I did," would 
be your reply, " but common sense ought to teach you 
that you could do it more easily and quickly, by 
taking one or two at a time." So common sense 
ought to teach teachers, that if they expect or even 
wish to accomplish anything, they must attend to one 
thing at a time. 

It could hardly be expected that the pupil could re- 
member even the one-half the list named to him 
above, much less that he should accomplish it. But 
if but one, or at most two things be attempted at once, 
and then, for the time being, all the energies of the 
body and mind be directed to them, the difficul- 
ties will melt away gradually, and more surely than 
if the teacher should open a whole battery of abuse 
against the scholar. 

Now it is but justice to say, that in order to follow 
these directions and recommendations, it will require 
time ; but if this be offered as an objection, we reply, 
as on a former occasion, that if they are right they 



40 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

have as much claim on the time as any other duties. 
But it will not be inferred, that all that has been said 
of the last topic, for instance, will be required at every 
lesson. The probabilities are, that not more than one 
half or a fourth will ever be required at any one time ; 
but they are nevertheless all necessary, and all de- 
manded in their proper places. It will be found, that 
from three to five minutes will be amply sufficient to 
dispose of all that will be really necessary for any one 
recitation. That much time can not possibly be better 
spent. It will be ten times that amount saved in a 
very few weeks, and success instead of failure in 
the end. 



42 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 



Synopsis ii. 



( OBJECTS 
AND ENDS. 



c 

c 



To discipliuc the mind. To learn to think. 
To acquire and classify knowledge. 
To be able to communicate to othere. 



Health. Wholesome air. 



r Con\ eniences. ■< Comfortable seats. Silence. 

U ti 



REQUISITES 
AND MODES. \ 



ime set apart for study. 



Observation. 
Antecedents, -i Interest. 
Attention. 

Investigation. 
Generalization. 



MEANS OF 
^ SECURING. \ Description. 



r Attention of eye and ear. Conversation. 
Stratagem. J Waking up mind. Wonderful phenomena. 
V. Mental repetition. Silent Analysis. 



Direct Ap- 
peals. 



Objects. Places. Outline. 
Distance. Excursions. 
Transactions. Stories. 

Conscience. Usefulness. 
Happiness. Approbation. 
Self-interest. Compulsion. 



STUDY. 



CHAPTER II. 

STUDY. 

The claims of this branch of the subject to special 
consideration, are such as scarcely need argument. 
Study, with recitation, constitutes the great staple of 
the school. Without it, there could be no real prog- 
ress or development. It is a condition of growth in 
the intellectual world, as essentially as cultivation is in 
the vegetable world; and the condition of the mind 
without study or discipline, is not inaptly compared to 
an uncultivated field, over-grown with brambles and 
unsightly weeds. Study keeps the powers from stag- 
nation, and the mind and body both in a healthy state. 
If they are left without this regulating force, either 
one or the other, or both, take on a monstrous or 
diseased growth. It has been remarked already, that 
if £ood seed is not sown, bad will be ; if good habits 
are not formed, bad ones will be; and if the harvest 
is not garnered by skillful hands, it will be trodden 
down by the feet of the wicked and dissolute. This 
is true in an intellectual sense as well as in a moral. 

But there are difficulties in the way of study that 
must be removed, before any successful labor can 
proceed. These difficulties are of such a nature, as 
often to defy the unaided efforts of the young. One 
of these difficulties exists in the form of weakness, or 
natural inability to study, arising from extreme youth. 
The mind, like the body, needs practice, before it can 



44 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

perform its functions properly; and like it, too, its 
motions at first are awkward, feeble, and confined 
chiefly to the simple operations ; and they are of short 
continuance. 

Again : the difficulty may arise from constitutional 
dullness or stupidity. This also finds its similitude in 
bodily weakness and imbecility. Hence the same 
amount and kind of study should not be demanded 
of all alike, any more than the same amount of food 
and labor should be apportioned to all, without respect 
to age or constitutional differences. 

The early formation of bad habits is another fruitful 
source of difficulty. These, like an incubus, weigh 
down the mind, and divert it from its proper channel. 
The mind, in its natural or unobstructed state, possesses 
no aversion to study ; but by wrong treatment and 
misdirected effort, early prejudices are formed, which 
become serious obstacles to healthy study; not only so, 
but habits of superficial study are formed, which, in the 
end, are scarcely less formidable, than aversion itself. 

Again : willful obstinacy is a condition of mind 
that must be met and provided for ; for among all the 
obstacles, none will demand greater patience or skill 
to overcome. From these, and various other sources, 
the mind is hindered in its approaches to progress and 
development; so that we would be safe in saying that 
from one-half to two-thirds of the time devoted to 
study in the schools, is employed to little or no pur- 
pose, or perhaps to positive disadvantage to the pupil. 
This would seem like a grave charge against the 
institutions of our country ; and yet the facts, as 
carefully deduced from experiment, will justify the 
assertion. The very time and energies that were 
intended for the most benevolent purposes, are most 



STUDY. 45 

shamefully perverted, and turned against the child, as 
a shaft of self-destruction. They are squandered, and 
worse than squandered, at a time too when they can 
least he spared. This is too fearful an expenditure for 
the morning of life; and the loss is much aggravated 
by the reflection, that what is lost here only prepares 
the way for subsequent losses. But we propose to 
notice, 1. The Objects of study ; 2. The Requisites 
and Processes ; and 3. The Motives and Means of 
securing study. 

Article 1— Tlie Objects and Ends. 

It is necessary that we have clear ideas upon these 
points ; otherwise our efforts may be entirely misdi- 
rected. It will be found also, upon the examination 
of pupils, that they possess very inadequate notions 
with regard to the true objects and ends of study — 
many of them ranging no higher than a mere desire 
to recite the lesson well, to keep up with their classes, 
or to receive as high a credit as possible. Now all of 
these may be well enough in their places ; but any one 
can see, that they are not the objects that should be 
held before the mind, to guide it in its development. 
They are selfish ; and their attainment would defeat 
the very object the teacher should have in view in 
requiring study. They circumscribe the limits of 
thought, and confine the mind to the mere drudgery 
of selfish toil. 

Again : others get the idea that the highest object 
of study is to acquire knowledge, in whatever way 
they can. Hence they come to regard the mind as a 
kind of warehouse, or lumber room, into which they 
may deposit their knowledge and ideas for safe-keep- 
ing, rather than as a fruitful field to be cultivated, that 



46 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

it may yield a continuous supply of these, all fresh and 
vigorous, and unlike the musty and withered ware- 
house ideas, dragged forth from where they may have 
been molding and rusting for years. 

Section 1 — Discipline. — The chief object of study, 
therefore, is to discipline the powers of the mind, or to learn 
to think closely, accurately, methodically and continuously. 
The Americans — perhaps justly — are styled a nation 
of talkers ; and if there is truth in the maxim, that 
" He who talks much must talk in vain, " this is no 
very nattering tribute to our talent. The compliment 
would certainly be more acceptable if it included 
thinking also. We maintain that it is just as nec- 
essary that we learn to think, as that we learn to 
talk ; not that talking is antagonistic to thinking ; but 
that we learn to think independently of talking. 
There seems to be more need of sound, sober thinking 
and study, than for the proclivity to which allusion is 
made. For this reason, there should be a portion of the 
time set apart for the cultivation of this talent. 

It will also be found, upon the examination of pu- 
pils, that few possess the power to think or study 
closely and accurately. They do not dive into the 
depth of a subject, but skim upon the surface. Their 
thoughts are not distinct and w r ell-defined, but in a 
blurred and indefinite state. This may be called 
superficial thinking or study, and affords little or no 
discipline for the mind. 

Others again may possess the power to elaborate 
clear thoughts ; but they lack system or method. 
Their thoughts are in a chaotic state. They rush on 
in a confused and disordered manner. Their force is 
expended without accomplishing the desired results. 



STUDY. 47 

They resemble the disconnected links of a jhairi, lying 
scattered round. The links themselves are all proper 
enough, but there is no connection. Now, it is the 
business of education and discipline to regulate and 
bring into line this untamed and scattered force, and 
harness it into the car of consecutive thought; to give 
point and efficiency to the efforts of the mind ; not 
only to arouse thoughts in the mind, but to wing 
them, and send them on their mission. 

Another difficulty or hindrance to successful think- 
ing or study, is the want of the power of concentra- 
tion or continuous effort. Some seem to be able to 
think for a few moments vigorously, but are unable 
to protract the process at will, to any considerable 
length. They resemble those birds that fly rapidly 
for a few rods, but are unable to continue long upon 
the wing. Such persons must necessarily be circum- 
scribed in their efforts; for it is only by continuous 
and protracted efforts that great results are produced. 
There is a vast difference between the mere passage of 
thoughts through the mind, and close consecutive 
thinking. The one resembles the fitful glare of the 
meteor, — the other, the steady blaze of the summer 
sun. The one dazzles the eye for a moment, and 
then disappears in darkness,- the other pours down 
a continuous ray, until the whole firmament is in a 
blaze. Few are thus capable of holding their minds 
upon a given point, until it has mastered it; or of 
commencing at the beginning of a subject, and think- 
ing it through without stopping, or allowing the mind 
to wander. But it is the province of education and 
discipline to impart this power; to arm the mind 
with strength, to grapple with and overcome difficul- 
ties; to subdue and chasten it, and bring it under such 



48 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

control that it may, at pleasure, bend its energies 
upon a given point, until that point yields. This is 
discipline, one of the first and most important objects 
of study. Every lesson assigned should look to this 
object. It is not so much the mere acquisition and 
possession of the facts in science that educates, as it is 
the exercise and labor of acquiring. 

There is, therefore, this difference between acquisi- 
tion and discipline, between instruction and education. 
Acquisition and instruction collect the materials, dis- 
cipline and education dispose of them in their proper 
places. The first feed the faculties of the mind, the 
second exercise them ; the first constitute the means, 
the second the ends ; the first develop knowledge, the 
second power; acquisition is learning, discipline is 
wisdom; instruction affords nourishment, education 
begets strength. Knowledge is the accumulation of 
facts and principles, wisdom is the ability to use them. 
An instructed man is a man of knowledge, an edu- 
cated man is a man of wisdom. Instruction is a con- 
dition of education; knowledge, of wisdom; acquisition, 
of discipline. Instruction and acquisition afford the 
opportunities of improvement ; educatiou and disci- 
pline make use of these opportunities for the accom- 
plishment of the duties of life: so that they are all as 
essentially necessary to perfect development of mind, 
as food and exercise are to the growth and perfect 
development of the body. 

Section 2 — Acquisition. — The next object, there- 
fore, of study is acquisition, which, while it does not 
rank as high as that of discipline, is nevertheless, no 
mean object ; and one of the most fortunate circum- 
stances connected with this subject is, that the very best 



STUDY. 49 

modes for discipline are the very best for acquisition, 
and vice versa. That acquisition which does not call 
into exercise, more or less, all the powers of mind, 
should at least be distrusted. This is evidently the 
intention of acquisition, that while it feeds the mind, 
it should also work it, and make it strong. The mere 
acquisition, without the discipline, would produce the 
mental dyspeptic, whose powers, rather enfeebled than 
otherwise, would sink down under the unnatural 
burden. 

Section 3 — Communication. — But suppose the in- 
dividual, if it were possible, should stop with mere 
discipline and acquisition ; would the objects and pur- 
poses of stud}- be fulfilled ? In this case, he would re- 
semble the miser who had hoarded away his silver and 
gold, to canker and corrode on his hands. We de- 
spise such a creature. We say of him, " There goes a 
man that has robbed the world — the w T idow and the 
orphan of their dues." Thousands may be dying of 
want, and yet he clutches his ill-gotten gain still 
more tightly. He becomes an object of detestation 
and loathing ; and he ought not to expect more, for 
he has no right to human sympathy, since he gives 
none. ]n~o man has a right to deprive his fellows of 
the necessities of life, without sufficient cause. But 
how much better is an intellectual miser, one who has 
hoarded away his intellectual treasures, while the 
world may be dying for them, than the merely phys- 
ical miser ? Rather, we should ask, how much worse ? 
If depriving men and women of that which merely 
feeds the body, becomes a crime, what must the enor- 
mity of that offense be, which deprives them of their 
mental food ? 
(5) 



50 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Here again would appear the harmony and econo- 
my of right modes of education; for while the indi- 
vidual learner is most actively engaged in disciplining 
the powers of his mind and acquiring knowledge, he 
is at the same time throwing off rays which enlighten 
others. Man, when he lives right, lives not for him- 
self, hut for others. His chief advantage, as well as 
his chief happiness (and they are never separated), con- 
sists in doing good to others. The very best way of 
disciplining the powers of our own minds, and of 
acquiring knowledge, is to make use of those powers 
in giving away our knowledge as fast as we acquire 
it. What we give away, we keep ; what we keep, we 
lose. This is a seeming paradox, hut it is no less than 
one of the benevolent designs of the Creator ; for if a 
person is free in the use of his knowledge and intel- 
lectual powers, he not only keeps what he has, but is 
constantly acquiring more ; whereas, if he attempt to 
retain it, without using it, he is sure to lose it. Hence, 
" To him that hath (and uses) shall be given, and he 
shall have more abundance ; but from him that hath 
not (improved) shall be taken away that which he 
hath." This is the reason why the profession of teach- 
ing, when properly pursued, offers larger opportunities 
for thorough, full-orbed development of soul, body 
and intellect, than any other in the whole range of 
professions. It is the Heaven-appointed means of per- 
petuating knowledge, and of educating the race ; for 
when and while an individual is educating himself, 
after the true mode, he will furnish the conditions 
whereby all within the circle of his influence, may be 
educated. All are, therefore, to some extent, teach- 
ers, but some more so than others ; and the more fully 
they act in this sphere, and fulfill the conditions of 



STUDY. 51 

the true teacher, the more exalted are tin ir privileges 
and powers. By the very nature and design of this 
profession, it furnishes these privileges in larger meas- 
ure than any other; for while it gives, it receives, 
and while it exercises, it strengthens. Who ever heard 
of a teacher becoming demented by teaching ? When 
this happens (but it never happens from real teaching), 
the teacher is no longer fit for service. He should 
therefore be removed, and treated with the care and 
humanity which such unfortunate beings deserve. 

A third object of study, therefore, is to learn to com- 
municate to others what we have learned ourselves. This 
object should be kept constantly before the eye of 
both teacher and learner. The understanding should 
be, that the lesson is to be so well prepared that it 
may, with ease, be communicated to others. This 
completes the discipline and renders the acquisition 
more rapid and certain. 

Article 2— Requisites and Modes. 

There are certain conditions necessary, in order to 
secure the results anticipated under the head of Ob- 
jects, etc., which are clearly entitled to consideration. 
In addition to those named in the introduction to this 
chapter, there are others of a more special character, 
which will be treated under the topics Requisites and 
Modes. 

Section 1 — Health, Etc. — Among the conditions 
necessarv to secure good study, the physical health 
should not be overlooked. The body should be in a 
sound condition, and the surrounding circumstances 
should all be favorable. No child can study well, when 
it is suritering from disease, or when it is placed in an 



52 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

unnatural and uncomfortable position. But to attempt 
to consider all the conditions of the body necessary to 
healthy study, in detail, would require a treatise on 
physiology and hygiene. We shall content ourselves, 
therefore, by noticing a few of the more general points. 

1. The air should be in as pure a state as possible. 
It is terrible to witness the suffering that arises from 
breathing impure air. It vitiates the blood, which, in 
its turn, acts upon the brain, causing disease there, 
and rendering it utterly impossible to secure anything 
like a healthy action of that organ. Healthy thoughts 
must proceed from a healthy brain, and a healthy 
brain is dependent upon healthy blood, and healthy 
blood can not exist without pure air, and pure air can 
not exist in poorly ventilated school-rooms. Hence, 
healthy thoughts depend, in no small degree, upon 
the condition of the school-room. 

There has been much said and written upon this 
subject lately, and yet people have not more than be- 
gun to open their eyes upon the enormity of the evils 
arising from the want of pure air, in the growth and 
education of children. Teachers and pupils are yet 
confined in small and badly ventilated apartments 
from two to three hours at a time, with scarcely 
breathable air enough to supply the demand for fifteen 
minutes. The results are pale, sallow countenances, 
headache, colds, indisposition, languor, fretful ness and 
bad temper, and a general dislike to the school and 
all its exercises ; and if we add to this vitiated atmos- 
phere a dusty and filthy school-room, which is too 
apt to be its accompaniment, we have all the condi- 
tions necessary to produce permanent disease, and 
sometimes death. Iso pecuniary considerations should 
be weighed against the provisions for furnishing a 



STUDY. 53 

constant supply of wholesome air to the inmates of the 
school-room. 

Section 2 — Seats. — Again : comfortable seating is 
a consideration of no small importance. It is plainly 
a condition which ought to he considered in connec- 
tion with study. No successful study or thinking can 
he carried on when the body is constantly tortured 
by confinement in uncomfortable positions. The en- 
ergies of the mind are exhausted in devising ways and 
means for escape or diversion, while those of the body 
are either exhausted or wrongly directed in efforts to 
endure the pain, or to evade it. This is true of adults : 
what then must be the effects upon those who are far 
less able to bear suffering? Children need all the 
minds they have for study ; and it seems strange that 
any other means should be devised for disposing of 
them. 

But these evils are fast disappearing from our 
schools. People are coming to understand more fully 
the physiological and psychological nature of man : 
that there is really a connection between body and 
mind, and that it is not necessary to torture one in 
order to develop the other; but that when any injury 
is inflicted upon the one, it is transmitted to the other. 

Section 8 — Opportunity. — There is another class 
of conditions or requisites which we shall call oppor- 
tunity. We often require of children, what they are 
incapable of performing, until we have provided them 
the means, or removed some of the difficulties from 
the way. Their little minds are weak, and, like their 
bodies, require the most careful treatment, until they 
acquire strength. They are incapable, for the most 



•54 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

part, of any protracted efforts in study or thinking, 
and yet it is not an uncommon thing to hear teachers 
give orders like the following: "Now I want you all 
to he perfectly quiet all this forenoon, and to study all 
the time." Now if the teacher really means what he 
says, in this requirement; and if it were fulfilled to 
the letter, for a series of days, there would soon be a 
fine job for the undertaker. The teacher in this case 
has demanded what is next to an impossibility, even al- 
lowing the necessary movements for breathing, &c. 
What, children to be perfectly still for two or three 
hours at a time! Why, it is monstrous! He might 
with about the same propriety have said : " Now don't 
you breathe ;" or," Don't, you think a single thought." 
Does he think that education consists in being still ? 
Does he know that motion is a law of the universe, 
and a necessity for children? and that what he has 
demanded, viz., study, requires motion ? that he has 
interdicted this law and this necessity ? Does he 
know, in fact, that he has given them a lesson in dis- 
obedience? that they must necessarily disobey him? 
and that the force of his commands, however reasona- 
ble in other respects, is thereby weakened? 

Now if children were vegetables, and required to be 
kept in one position all the time, to insure their growth, 
there would be some propriety in this requirement. 
But they are animals, thinking and rational animals 
that require alternate rest and motion. Education is 
not confinement; it is freedom and activity of body 
and mind. It is not torture and pain ; it is pleasure 
and enjoyment. It is not weakness and decrepitude; 
it is strength and vigor. It is not sickness; it is 
health. It is not death ; it is life, glorious, active, 
busy, buoyant life, with the largest liberty and most 



STUDY. 55 

perfect development of nil of man's rational and legit- 
imate powers. Why then should the teacher make 
such an unreasonable demand? And then he has re- 
quired them to "study all the timer He might, with 
about the same propriety, have required them to eat 
Jill the time. It is impossible for them to study all 
the time. Hence, the probabilities are, they will study 
none of the time, since no particular portion has been 
assigned them. 

Children are incapable of thinking upon one subject 
more than a few minutes at a time. Now provisions 
should be made to suit this want. One of these would 
be a time set apart and devoted exclusively to efforts, 
to call out and develop thought. The ordinary reci- 
tation will accomplish this in part; but it is not suffi- 
cient. There is one kind of thinking — and the most 
useful kind, too — that it does not necessarily promote, 
viz., the silent thought, so necessary in preparing les- 
sons. Children do not know how to study or to 
think until they are taught how. There should, there- 
fore, be thinking exercises, in which nothing else is 
done but pure thinking or study. This will afford op- 
portunity for the formation of the habit of thought 
and self-control, which is so valuable in every pursuit 
in life. It will be described under " Means of Securing 
Study." 

Section 4— Silence. — Again : the circumstances 
should be favorable in another respect. Silence is a 
condition necessary to this kind of study. No pupils, 
unless they possess extraordinary powers of concen- 
tration, can study with a continual noise and buzzing 
about their ears. Their powers of voluntary attention 
are necessarily weak; hence, whenever any thing from 



PD THE ART OF TEACHING. 

without, having a stronger attraction for them, ob- 
trudes itself upon their notice, their attention is drawn 
from those things having less attractive force. There 
should, therefore, during the time set apart for think- 
ing or study, be no unnecessary noise, not so much as 
moving the lips. Children should be taught to think 
with their mouths shut. Their lips are not the neces- 
sary appendages of thought, any more than their fin- 
gers or toes are. Hence, during the time of study, 
which should not exceed live or ten minutes at a time, 
children should not be allowed to interrupt one another 
by studying half audibly or "buzzing," as it is com- 
monly called. The "loud school," as it is termed by 
some, or the practice of studying aloud, is an anomaly, 
and should never be countenanced. Whatever may 
be said in palliation of this practice, can never redeem 
it from the objections which have been offered above. 
The silence there recommended, will afford opportu- 
nity for the formation of the habit of close consecu- 
tive thinking, which will do more to strengthen the 
power of attention than all the loud study that can be 
practiced. Whatever excellency this mode of study 
may possess as a means of cultivating the ability to 
think in the midst of confusion (and it may possess 
merit in this respect), is more than counteracted by 
the loss of time and dissipation of thought (to say 
nothing about the inconvenience and annoyance to 
the teacher), by the noise and confusion arising from 
it. And then, to say the least of it we can, if it is 
not absolutely disorderly in itself, it offers one of the 
greatest temptations to superficial study, and for car- 
rying on mischief, that could be devised. 

Section 5 — Interest and Attention. — The modes 



STUDY. 5 , 

of study arc also worthy of notice. All valuable study 
is accompanied with interest and attention. Attention 
is the key to investigation. It may be either volun- 
tary or involuntary. The former is the genuine, but 
it often becomes necessary to resort to the latter as a 
means of securing it. Children, however, seldom pos- 
sess sufficient self-command to force attention. It 
therefore becomes necessary to "bait them" with a 
little interest, and the more the better, so that it does 
not amount to undue excitement. The two things, 
viz., interest and attention, are so nearly allied to each 
other, in the process of study, that it seems difficult to 
separate them ; and that study (?) which is secured at 
the expense of either is of little or no value. Children 
may "say their lessons over" from morning till noon, 
and from noon till night, without securing the disci- 
pline which it is the design of study to give. 

There is a kind of attention which is not desirable. 
It is that which forces the lesson for the time being 
upon the memory, and charges it to keep it until after 
recitation ; but further than that, it does not concern 
itself. This kind of attention and study seldom leaves 
the mind any better than it found it. Indeed, aside 
from the little knowledge that may accidentally have 
clung to the walls of memory in its rapid 'passage 
through (for it does not remain there), the mind is 
rather injured than otherwise by the formation of a 
bad habit. Just as soon, however, as any fhing having 
the properties that possess attraction for the mind, is 
presented to it, interest is excited, and attention is 
elicited. The mind is now in a favorable state for 
progress. A series of inquiries are at once begotten, 
which result in investigation and reflection. These may 
be, at first, in a feeble state — scarcely noticeable indeed. 



58 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

For instance : take the young child in the nursery. 
Give him some pleasing toy. His interest and atten- 
tion are at once excited. This must be the case, 
or he would not even notice it; much less become ab- 
sorbed in it. Now mark the process that follows the 
interest and attention, just as surely as the thunder 
follows the lightning, or as light is the result of 
the rising of the sun. He, in all probability, breaks, 
tears or bites his toy ; for his hands are his instru- 
ments of apprehension, and his mouth is his test-tube, 
retort and crucible, into which he introduces all his 
substances for examination and experiment. But in 
all this, is that boy doing nothing more than merely 
amusing himself? It would seem so; and he can 
give no further account of it, himself. He, perhaps, is 
unconscious of any further motive. But watch him. 
What prompted that desire and that movement? 
They must have a cause ; and their existence indicates 
design. They could not have been given for the pur- 
poses of mischief and destruction alone. This would 
be impeaching the wisdom and benevolence of the 
Creator. But there is the wisest and most benevolent 
design connected with all this. What therefore, shall 
we call all this manipulation and experiment? It is 
investigation in its nascent state; and though, it may 
scarcely bear a mark of that exalted mental operation, 
as it appears in manhood, yet that little boy is inves- 
tigating just as essentially as the chemist in the labora- 
tory, or the mathematician at bis formula, or the 
astronomer as he sweeps the heavens with his tele- 
scope. They are all investigating, the one as essen- 
tially as the other, with this difference, that in the 
latter case, the process is guided by judgment and 
will : in the former, by mere impulse. The first is in- 



STUDi\ 59 

vestigation in embryo ; in the second, it is ripened into 
a purer and higher type. In the first, it is investiga- 
tion to gratify an apparently idle curiosity; in the 
second, to answer the highest aims of life; but it is 
easy to trace hack this higher form, through all the 
various stages, until we arrive at the very threshold 
of intelligence ; or until we find it in its incipient state, 
in the nursery and among the toys. Hence it will be 
seen, that investigation becomes a second step in learn- 
ing, and therefore a mode of study. The process 
itself has been described in the Science of Education. 
But with pure investigation alone, the mind would 
not receive the full benefits of study. It is followed 
by memory and reflection, as surely as investigation 
follows interest and attention. The memory gathers 
up the thoughts and fragments of thoughts, as they 
are disengaged from the subject of study. Reflec- 
tion is the power which the mind possesses of re- 
viewing its own conclusions for the purpose of as- 
certaining more certainly their truth, and of fixing 
the facts and principles more permanently, in their 
appropriate place. Just as soon, therefore, as the 
mind becomes active in the pnusuit of truth, these 
several processes commence, as surely and essentially 
as the several wheels, bands, cranks and spindles 
all start off in motion when the power is applied at 
the water-wheel, or at the engine. How vain, there- 
fore, to attempt to put this tremendous machinery in 
motion by tugging at some of the bands, or twisting 
at some of the spindles ! And yet this is the process, 
when we attempt to secure study without Interest 
and Attention. But let the engine move ; and, if 
the gearing is perfect, the whole machinery will 
move also. 



60 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Section 6 — Abstraction, Generalization, etc, — 
There are yet other processes, following or accom- 
panying investigation etc., which while they may be 
regarded as a part of it, nevertheless have some dis- 
tinctive characteristics, worth} 7 of a separate notice. 
Their importance also to teaching and learning is 
such as to entitle them to a brief recognition. 

As the mind advances, step by step, from the simple 
notices and apprehensions, on through the several 
stages of investigation and reflection, it arrives at a 
point where there is an evident need of other opera- 
tions, growing out of its own relations and the exist- 
ence of matter. It is not our purpose to investigate 
this feature of the subject, further than to show the 
character of this want, and the mode of supplying it. 
For instance : if the mind should halt in its progress, 
when it had investigated or tracked out all the facts and 
apprehensions, its state would resemble that condition, 
shoulcl it pause with simple acquisition. It might not 
be able to appropriate its acquisitions to the purposes 
for which they were intended. Abstraction, or that 
power which enables it to separate and consider, apart, 
particular and distinct properties or species, arising 
out of general or complex subjects, becomes neces- 
sary. Children, for the most part, are incapable of 
doing this, to any great extent. Care, therefore, 
should be taken in the arrangement of their studies, 
not to perplex their minds with those studies that 
require too much abstraction. 

The process of generalization, or the power to 
arrange under their appropriate heads, the facts and 
principles elicited in the process of investigation, is 
indispensable to learning and teaching. It completes 
the modes or processes of thinking, just as eommuni- 



STUDY. 61 

cation or the art of expression, to which it is prepara- 
tory and an indispensable prerequisite, completes the 
object of study. It will be observed, therefore, that 
the objects of study and requisites are concomitants, the 
one answering to the other in points of mutual coop- 
eration. Thus : health and convenience, interest and 
attention, being indispensable to discipline and thought, 
investigation (including the other mental operations), 
to the acquisition of knowlege, and, lastly, abstraction 
and generalization to that of communication or the 
art of teaching. The application, or process of mak- 
ing use of knowledge constitutes, within itself, a mode 
or process of culture; but its claims have been con- 
sidered elsewhere. 

It will be necessary to keep the objects, requisites, 
and modes of study distinctly in mind, while investi- 
gating the means of securing it, since the success of 
the whole system, and indeed of any system, will de- 
pend upon the closeness with which we adhere to the 
principles involved in it. For this reason we have 
been more particular in describing some of the mental 
processes concerned in successful study. 

Article 3— Means of Securing Study. 

It might be well now to inquire after the means 
whereby this valuable mental exercise can be elicited 
and conducted. Ln doing so, we shall have recourse 
to the following classification of means : 1. By Strata- 
gem. 2. By Narrative and Description. 3. By Direct 
Appeals. 

Section 1— Stratagem.— These terms will need a 
little explanation, since it is not claimed that they con- 



62 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

vey any particular direction in and of themselves; nor 
yet is it claimed that they are the best that could be 
used: they are only the best we could find. We shall 
hope, therefore, to receive some indulgence, if we suc- 
ceed in making their use intelligible in this connection. 
For instance : it is not intended by the use of the word 
*'* stratagem," that we may resort to deception and low 
tricks in securing study; but rather, a judicious em- 
ployment of means and motives that have been fur- 
nished us by the Creator for the express purpose of 
calling out and adorning the minds of the young. It 
is employed in the sense of tact, skill, wisdom, pru- 
dence, forecast, or strategy, which last, perhaps, would 
be a better word. Narrative and Description are used 
to indicate that mode of inducing thought and stud}^, 
by calling out and making use of the knowledge 
already acquired, as a means of inciting to further 
acquisitions and use. The Direct Appeals have refer- 
ence to a class of motives that may be used, according 
to circumstances, with a higher grade of development, 
such as we usually find in the intermediate and high 
schools. 

In describing the various devices that may be re- 
sorted to, in leading children into habits of thinking, 
we shall consider the simpler modes first, on the sup- 
position that we are operating with small children, 
and thence pass to the more advanced. It was stated 
in the article on the " Object of Study," that to disci- 
pline the mind, or to learn to control its powers, is one 
of the first and most important objects; and in the 
article on "Requisites and Modes," that health, con- 
venience, opportunit} T , interest, and attention are re- 
quisites that could not be dispensed with. It is not 
within the province of a work of this kind, to descend 



.STUDY. 



63 



to the particular modes of fulfilling the first thiee con- 
ditions, further than they are described in the preced- 
ing. These being complied with as far as possible, it 
will be necessary to inquire after the best modes of 
eliciting interest, and cultivating attention, that vagrant 
of the mind, which, when once tamed, becomes the 
engineer of investigation — the key that unlocks the 
storehouses of knowledge. 

In order to possess ourselves of the citadel of atten- 
tion, we must besiege the outposts and gain admittance 
through the open gates ; for to batter down the walls 
and force a passage (even were this possible) would 
yield no advantage, since by committing this outrage, 
we render useless all the engines, ammunition and 
energies of the besieged. It is desirable, therefore, that 
the entrance be made through the natural gates; and 
since these are open during all the w T aking hours of the 
mind, the difficulties of admittance are much reduced. 
Again : to render success certain, we must approach 
these outposts, not as enemies, not as a belligerent force, 
but as friends, seeking the peace and happiness of the 
inmates. This citadel is rendered still more accessible, 
from the fact that the sentinels on the outposts are 
continually on the alert, and seeking some one to 
enter, that will give them exercise and pleasure. They 
however, persistently refuse to admit any that will not 
give promise to this effect. 

The eye and the ear are the two grand gateways or 
highways to this citadel of thought; since, if these, 
with one other, which is a kind of subterraneous 
passage — the sense of touch, or the avenue of tactual 
knowledge — were closed before any impressions have 
been made through them, however perfect the organ- 
ism in other respects may be, the individual would be 



64 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

incapable of the exercise of thought. The teacher 
should, therefore, first avail himself of the command 
of those avenues, that he may direct their energies 
upon proper themes; or, rather, he should so operate 
upon them, and the mind through them, that their 
notices and the whole attention shall be as nearly 
voluntary as possible. Take, for example, the eye 
the window to the mind, which, in childhood, is ever 
on the alert, ever seeking gratification and food for 
the mind. The object should be to train it, not only 
to the appreciation of the beautiful, but to habits of 
close observation, and continuous -application for a 
given period. 

Many children are incapable of confining even their 
eyes to observe anything closely, for a minute at a 
time. Hence, when the eye wanders, the attention 
wanders also. The weakness of mind in this respect 
on the part of children, is truly remarkable. They 
may be induced, it is true, to look at a beautiful 
picture, a flower, or something novel or wonderful, 
for a greater length of time, and even here the obser- 
vation is apt to be superficial ; but to confine the 
attention at will, and make it do the bidding of the 
mind, are matters of such difficulty, that few children 
can accomplish them without special assistance. Many, 
indeed, spend half their time in weak and ineffectual 
efforts to study ; while others, from the same want of 
discipline, spend still a greater portion of theirs in 
mischief. 

Now, this error can be corrected, and this fearful 
loss and abuse of time and energy can be saved. This 
squandering was never intended ; and if the common 
schools can not correct the evil, then they are not the 
proper instrumentalities for the education of the 



STUDY. 65 

people. What we wish to cultivate in the children 
is the power to fix the attention at will, and to hold it 
upon a subject until the object for which it is held, is 
accomplished; or in other words, the poiver to study 
their lessons and to think. The ordinary mode, or that 
which children, if left to their unaided efforts, are apt 
to adopt, does not do this; since it is no uncommon 
thing to see a whole bevy of children actively engaged 
in what they call study, while perhaps not one in ten 
is exercising his thoughts upon the lesson. Such 
study is a positive injury. 

A little expedient, to which I have resorted, on 
some occasions, may be suggestive of means that may 
be adopted for correcting these evils, and of fixing the 
attention. Holding up my watch to the school, I 
have said, "How many of these little boys and girls 
can look at it for one minute at a time?" The idea 
perhaps is a novel one, and their little voices and 
Viands will respond, anxious for the experiment. Some 
will say boastingly, " I can look at it an hour ! " " Two 
hours!" responds another little captain who is anxious 
to make a display of his prowess. At this juncture, 
I ask, "How many would be willing to make the ex- 
periment of one minute continuous looking, provided 
I should give you five dollars if you should succeed ?" 
At this announcement there is a shower of hands and 
a shout of voices raised to the highest pitch. " Well 
I will not promise you the five dollars ; but let us try." 
"All ready!" "Now T !" and their forms straiten up, 
and all eyes are bent with intense earnestness upon 
the watch. It grows very quiet, and everyone listens 

and looks Presently it occurs to half a 

dozen or more of them, that they are doing it about 
right. " I wonder if John, or Charles, or James, or 



66 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Mary, or Jane, or Ellen is looking too?" " Wonder if 
they all are doing as well as I am," and their thoughts 
leave the watch and the promise, and wander after 
Charles or Jane, and the temptation to look away 
becomes so great that in about a half a minute or less, 
you will see an occasional pair of eyes glance hurried!)' 
to some convenient quarter of the room, and back- 
quick, to the watch again : others, still less cautious, 
will turn the head, and look carelessly away ; others 
again, will drop off entirely, and cease to look; while 
some, more resolute and determined and careful than 
the rest, will not remove their eyes for a moment, and 
at the expiration of the time, will announce their tri- 
umph with evident satisfaction. At the close, some will 
insist upon a new trial. It may be granted; and then 
others will succeed: and here it might be well to vary 
the experiment. The question might be asked: "If 
you are capable of holding your eyes fixed upon that 
watch, can you, with equal success, confine them to a 
picture or mark upon the board?" Thjs experiment 
may also be made and repeated, accompanied with 
such explanations and variations, as may seem de- 
sirable. 

"Now if you can look at a watch, a picture, or a 
mere chalk mark upon the board, for a given time, 
can you look at your books as long, without change?" 
The intention here, perhaps, will be discovered by 
some; and they will begin to see the force of it. 
Let the experiment be made, however, and repeated 
with the book, without attempting to study. Indeed 
I would not allow them to study, for the first few trials. 
They must simply look. And if they succeed well, sug- 
gest that if they can look upon one page of the book, 
they might study that long, without looking away. And 



STUDY. 07 

here it might be well to explain the whole matter to 
them, and pledge them to an exercise of this kind, once 
or twice a day. This would be applicable, of course, only 
to those who can read or spell ; but it may be varied to 
suit any grade. And if they can thus confine the at- 
tention for one, two or three minutes, they can also, by 
practicing, continue it to five and six. But it will be 
found that young scholars are not able to endure more 
than three or four minutes, even after weeks and 
months of practice. 

A similar stratagem may be employed for the pur- 
pose of securing quiet, for a limited time, and then it 
should not be insisted upon beyond that time. All 
noise may be hushed for a minute at a time, and then 
for two, three, four, etc. Here it might be well to sug- 
gest, "What an excellent opportunity for study!" 
Show the importance of quiet in study; the advan- 
tages of doing but one thing at a time, and of doing 
that well. Pledge the children to the trial ; and exper- 
iment patiently with them, until the results are secured. 

Now the question arises: Can they think of their 
lessons for the required length of time? for there is 
such a thing, all are aware, as watching and mouthing 
lessons, without study or thought; or at least, while 
the thoughts are busied about something else. The 
object now is to induce the mind to follow the eye. 
This, a few weeks of practice will usually accomplish, 
yet it can be greatly facilitated by a few special ex- 
ercises, similar to those described for the eye, only the 
object now is to confine the mind upon the subject of 
experiment. Suppose this to be the watch, as before. 
u Now how many can think of the watch, for one 
minute, or during the time that the eye and the ear 
are giving attention ? " 



68 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

It will be bettor here, however, to select some object 
about which it will be easier tor them to employ their 
thoughts. The pictures of animals will form good 
subjects, since their nature, habits and the anecdotes 
respecting them will form excellent topics of thought 
while suitable experiments are made. These exper- 
iments should be repeated, both with and without the 
looking exercises, until satisfactory results are secured. 
At first the novelty of the thing itself will prevent, to 
some extent, the accomplishment of the object; but by 
and by, if the practice is persisted in, the habit will 
become a matter of ease and pleasure. 

Now it is not maintained that these are the only 
modes of cultivating attention. They only constitute 
a class that ma} 7 be varied to almost any extent, and 
are useful chiefly in preparing the way for study. If 
five minutes of each day were thus employed, even if 
nothing more is attempted than merely keeping quiet 
and looking at the book, it would be worth practicing, 
since it would then exceed what many children do, 
without such an exercise. The habit of idling time 
away, in fidgety attempts to study, or of gazing into a 
book, pretending to study; in order to deceive the 
teacher, is not only a shameful waste of time, but it is 
ruining the morals of the pupil ; for what is it but 
downright hypocrisy and lying? And yet I have 
known it to be practiced from morning till night, and 
from week to week, and term to term, with scarcely a 
variation. Can it be expected that boys and girls, 
t-aught after this fashion, will do any thing else than 
deceive whenever occasion is offered? Like will not 
produce its like, if they will not. And let it be borne 
in mind, that a lie can be acted as well as be told 
with the tongue. 



STUDY. 69 

But this practice of devoting just so much time of 
each day, to silent thought and study, strikes at the 
very root of this evil. It has a tendency, not only to 
break up the bad habit, but to form its opposite ; and 
the lessons which cause hours of anxiety, perplexity 
and dread, not to say sin, may be disposed of in a few 
minutes. Then the books should be laid aside, not 
kept as tormentors of the little folks, or to hide their 
mischievous faces behind, but laid aside, to be taken up 
again when the exercise is to be renewed, or a recita- 
tion is to be heard : laid aside, and their little busy 
hands and brains furnished with other employment. 
This will not only keep them out of mischief, but will 
use up all their mischievous desires in profitable labor. 

Not to be tedious in description, we only add. that 
there are other means of inducing children to think, 
which may be treated under the head of Conversation. 
These appeal more to the voluntary than the involun- 
tary attention, and may include all the exercises that 
were described in Chap. VI., Science of Education, 
to which the reader is again referred. Conversation 
possesses a power over the minds of children, amount- 
ing almost to magic. Here is the place to make use 
of it, in inciting the incipient thoughts to action, 
and in putting in practice what has been heretofore 
recommended. The exercise may, by way of distinc- 
tion, be called waking up mind by a recital of interest- 
ing narratives, etc., and a description, or rather an 
allusion to some of the wonderful phenomena of 
nature — such as described in the chapter alluded to 
above. 

Still another mode might be described here ; though 
it is no. : strictly strategical. We shall call it mental 
repetition, and append a brief explanation ; but first the 



tl) THE ART OF 'lEACillNQ. 

difficulties it is intended to remove. Many children, 
as has been remarked, are incapable of carrying for- 
ward a series of mental operations, without some ex- 
traneous aids; and unless these aids are furnished, 
they too frequently remain in this state of inability. 
They need something to cling to, until their minds 
acquire strength to move without the " props and 
stays." In some instances,- the evil manifests itself in 
the want of power to reproduce what may have been 
understood. This acts adversely upon the ability 
to think independently ; for if a person have the 
power to call to mind a connected series of words and 
sentences, and to follow a train of thought furnished 
by another, he will find less difficulty in his independ- 
ent efforts, since the efforts thus made produce the 
required discipline; hence the utility of mental repe- 
tition, or the practice of frequently and statedly calling 
to mind the words, sentences and thoughts of others. 
It should be commenced gradually, and something 
after the following manner: 

Let a brief, simple sentence composed of three or four 
words, be read in the hearing of the class, requiring each 
member, as soon as it is completed, to call all the words 
to mind, in the order in which they occurred in the sen- 
tence. When completed, let it be announced by the 
uplifted hand. Then let the same sentence be repeat- 
ed, compelling the mind, without the aid of speech, to 
examine every word carefully, as it passes before its 
vision. Another of greater length may then be intro- 
duced and treated in the same manner. And so on, 
until by practice, say five or six minutes per day, the 
class will, in a few weeks or months, be able thus to 
call to mind the consecutive words of sentences com- 
posed of twenty, thirty and, in some cases,fifty words. 



STUDY. 71 

This cultivates close attention, and the pupils that can 
thus hold the mind upon the words of a sentence, will 
soon learn to make use of the same power in the pur- 
suit of other subjects. It is learning how to think con- 
secutively. 

The same thing, with slight modifications, is prac- 
ticed in many of the best schools. A sentence is read 
to a class, and then the members, in consecutive order, 
are required to spell the words as they occur in the 
sentence, without the teacher's repeating them ; and 
it is astonishing to witness, not only the accuracy and 
rapidity with which they will reproduce the whole, 
hut the extent to which they will carry it, often spell- 
ing sentences composed of thirty, forty and fifty 
words, after hearing them once pronounced. 

Now, children taught in this way are not so apt to 
forget what they hear and read. They are not com- 
pelled to read the same page a half-dozen times before 
fixing it in mind ; and, hearing a discourse or lecture, 
they will be more apt to remember it, in the order in 
which it was delivered. 

Still another method, which we shall call Silent 
Analysis, may be employed with success. Its chief 
use, however, would be confined to pupils who possess 
the power of calculation, to some extent. It may be 
described thus. The teacher reads a question like the 
following: "If three oranges cost fifteen cents, what 
will seven oranges cost?" The class is now required 
not to give the answer, which could be done, perhaps, 
almost the instant the question is announced; but they 
are required to pass quietly over the whole example, 
bringing vividly before the mind, and examining every 
step of the analysis ; thus, in thought, " If three oranges 
cost fifteen cents, one orange will cost one third of fifteen 



i'l THE ART OF TEACHING. 

cents, which is live cents; and if one orange cost live 
cents, seven oranges will cost seven times live cents,whicii 
are thirty-live cents," examining every step and word 
as they pass along, and when the conclusion is reached, 
to announce it simply by the uplifted hand; then, at 
a given signal, all are required to review the process 
and report as before. Another question or example 
may be given in a similar manner, and repeated again 
and again, till the pupils acquire the power to fix the 
attention, at will, upon whatever point they please. 
Not a word is to be spoken during the whole exercise, 
except the mere reading of the question by the teacher, 
or some member of the class. 

It will be observed that this is a. purely mental ex- 
ercise. It is compelling the mind to take cognizance 
of its own operations, which will be found, at first, a 
more difficult task than a mere announcement of the 
result, after a brief survey, and then giving the anal- 
ysis orally, which is the common mode of recitation 
in mental arithmetic. The former mode secures by 
far the greatest amount, of discipline. But this will 
he described more fully under Recitation. 

Section 2— Narrative and Description. — These 
modes have been briefly described under the head of 
Intellectual Culture, in the Science of Education. 
Their use, as means of inciting to study, will be 
further illustrated here. 

It will be found upon a careful analysis of the 
modes and processes of thought, that they continually 
seek a tangible expression. We shape our thoughts, 
in some degree, after the objects of nature and of art, 
with which we are most familiar. The mind is con- 
tinually seeking comparisons, similes, metaphors, etc. 



STUDY. 



Hence all the figures of rhetoric. This peculiarity 
obtains more strongly in the earlier stages of think- 
ing, as well as in earlier stages of civilization. The 
feeble powers continually seek some sensible object, 
through which, and by which to give expression to the 
ideas. In other words, thinking is done by the aid of 
sensible objects. The simple, touching, forcible, and 
sometimes almost sublime expressions of childhood, 
will abundantly testify to this fact. Hence the narra- 
tive and descriptive modes are the processes they em- 
ploy. 

Now it is the policy of every wise teacher to take 
the thought, and the mental strength already developed 
in children, and to use it as a means of acquiring or de- 
veloping more, to use the present stock as a principal, 
from which a continual aunuity arises ; for these 
thoughts, accurately expressed by their possessor, will 
awaken other thoughts, which become in their turn, 
antecedents to others yet unborn. The advantage that 
this exercise possesses over many others, is that the 
thoughts must proceed in consecutive order, or the 
beauty of the narrative or description will be de- 
stroyed. 

A plan like the following might be adopted. Let a 
certain portion of the day be set apart, by general con- 
sent, as a time in which everything of importance which 
occurs, is to be carefully noted in the memory, in the 
order in which the several transactions take place. 
These are to be related in the same order, by the pupils, 
at the appointed time. Or the whole day might be ap- 
portioned out to the whole school, in the same manner, 
each one having a certain allotted part — the incidents 
to be reported at the proper time. This, I apprehend, 
would have a powerful effect upon the order of the 
(7) 



71 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

school. It should be guarded, however, from any 
system of espionage. The object is an entirely differ- 
ent one. Or the subject of narration or description 
may be some particular incident : in all of which cases, 
care should be taken that every thing be related in its 
proper order, and be strictly true. 

An excursion after specimens in natural history 
would afford one of the finest opportunities for culti- 
vating this power of observation, of attention, and of 
the ability to think in consecutive order. Different 
departments might be allotted to different members, 
one taking the objects of one particular class, and 
another, another. The occurrences and events might 
constitute another theme, which could be disposed of 
in a similar manner. It will be amusing, as well as 
instructive, to listen to all the minutiae. It' circum- 
stances are favorable, these things might be committed 
to writing. This will also prepare the way for com- 
position writing, which certainly should be preceded 
by some exercise, to give or induce thoughts, since the 
want Qf them seems to be the principal deficiency. 
If a child is capable of telling a straight story, it is 
pretty good evidence that he has thought it straight 
beforehand, which is just what we want. And if he 
can think a straight story, he may make a ready 
transfer of this power to his books and lessons 

Again : Objects and places form another class of ex- 
cellent exercises for this kind of practice. For in- 
stance : an object of some kind is named or exhibited 
to the class, and each member is required to give a 
description of it, including the size, form, weight, 
color, and all the properties belonging to it, including 
history and use. The object may be a chair, a block 
of wood, a fragment of rock, a lump of earth, a 



STUDY. 75 

branch of a tree, some part of an animal, or it may be 
some kind of grain, fruit or flowers : what a theme for 
conversation and description opens up here! What 
an endless variety of them ! 

Places may be the theme. In such case, it may be 
well to commence with the place occupied by the 
pupil, and then advance to those whose peculiarities 
are well remembered, such as the door-yard at home, 
the garden, the orchard, the meadow, the farm, the 
neighborhood, etc., etc. : or take the dwelling-house, 
and what a fine subject is offered in the description of 
the several apartments ! 

A description of outline and boundary is an excellent 
exercise for inducing thought. Let the simple out- 
line of some well-known field, farm or forest be given 
as a lesson for description. Let a person be supposed 
to pass round it. The objects and places passed or ap- 
proximated, should be named in the consecutive order, 
commencing at a given point. 

Way or distance may be described in the same man- 
ner. The pupils are requested to note everything 
worthy of description, that they observe on the road 
to or from school ; or to describe accurately the road 
from their homes to the school-house door. Such ex- 
ercises will not only make the pupils close observers of 
nature and art, but will make them close thinkers and 
describers, which latter acquisition is fully as valuable 
as the former. 

Now it will usually be found that the first efforts in 
narrating and describing, will be rather rude and in- 
definite, which rudeness and indefiniteness are suffi- 
cient reasons in favor of this practice : for what is 
our education for, if not to make us able and exact ? 
Practice, however, will soon remove the inaccuracies. 



%$ THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Let these exercises be repeated, day after day, at reg- 
ular intervals, in connection with other duties, taking 
up the topics in some systematic order, and teachers 
will be astonished at the accuracy that will in a short 
time be acquired. Lessons will be studied and recited 
with ten times the care and accuracy that would 
obtain, were no such aids used. For, if a pupil can 
tell what occurred within a given space of time, during 
the school hours, he can certainly study and remem- 
ber the events and incidents recorded in his history 
lesson, with greater ease; and if he can describe the 
one, he can the other. If he can describe the outline 
and boundary of a field or farm, with accuracy, he 
certainly can apply the same to the study of geogra- 
phy. If he can gather up, and treasure in his mind, 
the several incidents as they occur by the wayside ; if he 
can describe objects accurately and fully, he has al- 
ready taken the first step in the study of language. 
He may, therefore, with greater ease, apply the 
principles and rules of grammar, or follow the 
solution of a problem or the demonstration of a 
theorem. 

Such are some of the advantages of narration and 
description ; but their chief importance, as means of 
inducing thought and study, can only be estimated by 
their use. A fuller description of these modes will be 
given under the head of Recitation, in connection 
with others, bearing more immediately upon that 
subject. 

Section 3 — Direct Appeals.— 1. We shall now 
proceed to notice another class of means, intended 
more immediately for a grade of pupils, capable of ap- 
preciating the higher motives, which we shall endeavor 



STUDY 77 

to present in their natural order, beginning with the 
highest. 

It is a well-established principle in ethical philoso- 
phy, that a desire to do right, simply because it is 
right, or from purely conscientious feelings, ranks, if 
not the highest, at least among the highest motives of 
human action. Hence, an appeal to conscience for a 
faithful discharge of duty would be the highest ap- 
peal that could be made. It will be understood here, 
that we mean conscience, as developed by reason, and 
founded upon the most exalted ideas of God and a 
future state. These appeals then become a potent in- 
strumentality, not only in the discharge of the duty 
itself, but in cultivating the conscience. 

Motives of this kind, however, could avail but little 
with children of the age and advancement of those for 
whom we have been recommending the other two 
classes of means. It would avail but little, for in- 
stance, to say to a child that could not understand the 
right clearly, or comprehend the motive, or feel the 
obligation, "^owyou must study, because it is youi 
duty ; it is an obligation of the highest possible force.' 
The child thus addressed, might have no ill designs, 
but on the contrary, the impulses might be of a gen- 
erous order; but the force of that appeal would 
scarcely be felt, simply for the want of a proper un- 
derstanding and appreciation of it : and yet I have 
known teachers and ministers to talk to children just 
as if they could be moved by the same class of ap- 
peals which are appropriate for adults. Their lucid 
illustrations of right and wrong, would make the chil- 
dren stare, but would leave them wondering at such 
profundity, or reproaching themselves with ugliness 
or stupidity, when, in fact, the stupidity, at least, was 



78 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

on the other side. But with a class of pupils who are 
capable of appreciating appeals of this nature, to con- 
nect their duties thus with their highest destiny, and 
show their intimate relations and certain dependence, 
would act with a force measured only by the power 
of conscience. 

2. The appeals to a desire for usefulness are closely allied 
to the appeals to conscience. This desire, it will be 
seen, is purely a benevolent one, and the appeals to it 
become, like those to conscience, both the means of 
securing study, and of cultivating the desire itself. 
This desire, we maintain, is a natural one ; for no one, 
except a fiend, or one greatly depraved, could desire the 
misery of human beings, or even of brutes. We see 
this desire exhibited among children in a remarkable 
manner, in the sympathy they so readily manifest in 
each other's joys and sorrows. When properly culti- 
vated, it leads them to desire the welfare of all their 
associates and friends, and when more fully developed 
and Christianized, it ripens into that holy ardor for 
usefulness that burns in the bosom of the missionary 
of the cross or the true philanthropist. This desire 
will also be found to exist in various stages of devel- 
;>pment in the minds of pupils, and often sadly min- 
gled with selfishness. When, however, it can be 
shown that true usefulness depends upon faithful- 
ness in the discharge of duty, especially that of study ; 
that the power to do good is measured by development 
and discipline, no healthier stimulant can be applied. 
It is free from all those excesses to which so many of 
the ordinary motives are subject. 

3. The desire for happiness is another powerful mo- 
tive. It is intimately blended with the preceding one, 
since usefulness and happiness are inseparable. The 



STUDY. 



79 



desire for happiness is like the desire for existence 
itself. It is a universal desire. It pervades all ranks, 
ages and conditions in life ; and it even reaches be- 
yond this life, and becomes one of the leading motives 
to impel a preparation for the life to come. It can 
hardly be said to be strictly benevolent, since it seeks 
self-gratification or enjoyment; and yet even this may 
be regarded as a species of benevolence. Indeed it 
becomes a very high order of benevolence when it is 
so regulated in its actions as not to mar the happiness 
of others in seeking its own. A purely enlightened 
selfishness, in this sense, would lead a man to do right; 
for, since the happiness of man depends upon the ful- 
fillment of the law of love, or "to do unto others as 
ye would that others should do unto you," he would 
necessarily seek the fulfillment of that law. The 
amount of virtue, however, that such actions would 
involve must be determined from another standpoint. 

It may be clearly shown that the enjoyment of the 
faculties of the mind, and hence of the mind itself, 
depends upon action, development, and discipline of 
those faculties; that a lack of healthy activity would 
impair the growth ; that a sickly development would 
beget feeble enjoyment; that imperfect discipline 
would involve precarious happiness; and again, that 
the entire happiness depends upon usefulness, since, 
according to the well-known laws of mind and matter, 
just as soon as a man ceases to be useful to his fellow 
man, he ceases to be happy ; that there is no such 
condition in the economy of things as a man's carry- 
ing his happiness outside of his usefulness, since they 
both lie precisely in the same line ; and that if he 
loses the one, he loses the other also. 

What a merited rebuke upon sordid selfishness! If 



80 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

the poor, blind devotee of gain, or power, or pleasure, 
could but open his eyes upon this path, how soon 
would he recognize the folly of his course ! God has 
made it impossible for any human being to be happy, 
outside the path of duty and usefulness ; and the 
degree of pleasure is usually measured by the devotion 
to this course. What stronger, healthier, higher, 
holier motives can be employed in the school-room 
than these ? Does any one ask, " When and how they 
shall be applied ?" We answer, by appealing to them 
in every lesson, recitation and duty, by making every 
word of instruction point to this great object of ex- 
istence. 

4. The love of approbation is a motive that may 
be gently plied in the school- room. The affections 
which sometimes exist, and which should always 
exist between teacher and pupil, can be wielded with 
powerful certainty by those who understand their 
business. It exists in various degrees, from the simple 
cold respect, up through all the various grades of 
regard, esteem, veneration, reverence, friendship and 
love. The higher the grade of affection, the more 
potent the influence becomes. Now, if the pupil feel 
any or all of these generous emotions for the teacher, 
whatever of approbation he receives, will tell just so 
far, as a motive to duty ; and whatever of disapproba- 
tion is shown, will sting the conscience and self-respect 
to active exertions, to repair the losses and regain 
favor. 

But in the use of approbation and disapprobation, 
the greatest care should be exercised. There is great 
danger, on the one hand, of fostering pride and self- 
conceit, and a morbid desire for praise, which, if not 
bestowed, results in jealousy, envy and childish whims; 



STUDY. 81 

and on the other hand, in discouragement, petulance, 
and churlishness. The approving smile and look of 
love will do far more to elevate, purify and stimulate 
the desires, than all the fulsome praise and idle flattery 
that can he bestowed ; and on the other hand, the look 
of sorrow and disappointed hope, the gentle but earn- 
est reproof, will do more than all the censorious fault- 
finding and angry threats that can be employed, in the 
government of children. 

5. Self-interest, as a motive for study, is one that 
admits of two interpretations. If it is meant by it, 
that regard for self which leads the individual to seek 
his own happiness from the highest sources, and with- 
out interfering with the rights of others, or in a man- 
ner described under " Usefulness and Happiness" there 
certainly can be no objection to it. But, if by self- 
interest, is meant the mere gratification of selfish de- 
sires, without regard to the feelings or rights of others ; 
or to rise by pulling another down, or to acquire at 
another's sacrifice; or if it be the mere gratification of 
self for self's sake — it is not only of doubtful utility, 
but radically and unequivocally wrong. 

The practice, therefore, of giving prizes or rewards 
of merit, can scarcely be free from these objections. 
To say the least we can of the principle, as usually 
practiced, it is apt to' engender an unwholesome spirit 
of rivalry, to discourage the backward and timid, to 
provoke jealousies, to stimulate inordinate ambition; 
and above all, and worst of all, it is setting a paltry 
price on learning. The practice is therefore wrong in 
principle, when it proposes to pay a pupil for benefit- 
ing himself. In accepting, he takes that for which 
he has rendered no equivalent. He gets all the bene- 
fits of study or obedience himself, and then expects 



82 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

to be paid for it besides. Too much care can not be 
taken to teach children that they should, as far as pos- 
sible, render an equivalent for every thing they obtain. 
There can, however, be no objection to giving tokens 
of approbation ; but the practice of holding out the 
idea, that for so much study, so much pecuniary re- 
ward will be given, is at once to degrade study or obe- 
dience in the estimation of every right-minded pupil. 
And then again it is accompanied with this diffi- 
culty, that when the incentive is removed, when there 
are no more rewards to be received, the mind having 
been fed on such motives, there will remain no whole- 
some desire. It is apt to cease to act, when the 
false stimulant is removed. And yet we will not un- 
dertake to decide, that there can be no system of 
prize-giving, free from these objections. We will only 
say we do not know of any. 

6. Now, in conclusion, allow us to add, that it is alto- 
gether possible that cases will arise in school, that 
none of these appeals, nor yet any of the artifices here- 
tofore described, will effectually reach. Such cases 
are not only supposable, but doubtless have an actual 
existence; and it would not be granting too much, 
perhaps, to say that various degrees of laziness, stu- 
pidity and stubbornness exist throughout all the 
grades here described. But what shall be the resort 
in the extreme cases? The question is a plain and 
fair one, and is entitled to a courteous and frank an- 
swer. We therefore reply definitely and distinctly, 
that, when all other means have been exhausted, or 
where the probabilities are that they would be insuffi- 
cient, if applied, that recourse may be had to absolute 
compulsion : that forced obedience is better than re- 
bellion. " What," says one, " force a child to study? " 



STUDY. 83 

" Would you force a child that is not hungry, to eat ? " 
"No; but I would force a diseased person to take med- 
icine or nourishment, if the disease were of such a na- 
ture or malignity as to deprive the patient of judg- 
ment and reason; provided that food or medicine 
were the prescribed remedy. I would confine a pa- 
tient by physical force, to submit to amputation of a 
limb, if I were satisfied that that course was neces- 
sary to save his life: so I would compel a pupil, on 
the same principle, to submit to study; for I would 
consider him dangerously diseased mentally, if he could 
refuse all the means heretofore described ; and the 
sooner treatment of this kind is resorted to, the better, 
since the disease is apt to become aggravated from 
delay. But if a dose of silent study, administered by 
compulsion, once or twice a day, and an occasional 
amputation of a bad habit were performed* skillfully, 
it is more than probable that the patient would soon 
show signs of convalescence; whereupon milder meas- 
ures might then be employed. 

With these suggestions, we close the chapter on 
Study. But before leaving it, it is but just to say, that 
it is not claimed, by any means, that the list of mo- 
lives which maybe employed for teaching children 
how to think, has been exhausted. The fact is, we 
have only just approached the subject. It will be 
found, also, that the ordinary means will be sufficient 
for the great majority of cases; that resort to special 
efforts will only be required where special difficulties 
exist; and that with proper study by the teacher, 
upon these points, no difficulty can arise, but that a 
remedy will be suggested. 



84 



THE ART 01 



"EACHING. 



OBJECTS 

AND 
MOTIVES. 



syistoipsis ill. 

To ascertain the extent of preparation. 
To aid in understanding and retaining. 
To cultivate the expressive powers and regular habits. 



C 

H 

H 

i 

M 

w 

H 

H 

fi 

M 


c 




Bd 
o 

as 



CONDITIONS 

AND -< 

REQUISITES 



CONVENIENCE 



Recitation seats. 
Blackboards and maps. 
School apparatus. 



A thorough knowledge on the part of teacher 
Qualificat'ns. *L Preparation of lesson by the pupil. 
A cultivated voice and manner. 

Simplicity. Energy. Dispatch, 
s Fidelity. Patience. Gentleness. 
Strict order and arrangement. 

Completeness. Definiteness. 
Comprehensiveness. Independence. 
Answers given without prompting. 

Concert. Consecutive. Promiscuous. 

PRINCIPLES i Modes of An- \ _, . 

AND 1 swertng. -j Sllent - Beciprocal. Proxy 

' Monitorial. Contests. Writing. 



General Di- 
rections. 



/- Interrogative. 

Modes of Con- i _ . , 
ducting. < Topical. 

V. Didactic. 



( Subjects. 
( Diagrams. 

f Conversation. 
I Lectures. 



*See Modes of Answering 



RECITATION. 85 



CHAPTER III. 

RECITATION. 

vVe now approach that mooted and much belabored 
i/ubject — Recitation: the one which forms, perhaps, the 
great burden of treatises on teaching; but which, 
important as it is, is entitled to no higher considera- 
tion than many others. From the fact that it has 
long been regarded the summa summarium of teach- 
ing, its claims have been considered paramount to all 
others ; but upon a careful study of these claims, and 
a comparison of them with some others, recitation in 
many respects will be found to rank even below study. 
For instance : recitation is an instrumentality chiefly 
in the hands of the teacher ; and may be wielded by 
him as a powerful force in the education of the child ; 
but study, so far as it relates to the actual duty, be- 
longs to the child himself, and hence is more direct 
and potential. It constitutes the chief means of 
learning and discipline. Eecitation, however, may do 
much to facilitate study ; and in this sense its impor- 
tance increases. 

We shall proceed to examine this topic, first, with 
reference to its Objects and Aims; secondly, its Con- 
ditions and Requisites ; thirdly, its General Principles, 
and their Application. 

Article 1— Tlie Object and Aims. 

It will be found that there is a lamentable deficiency 
among teachers, as well as among pupil*, in reference 



86 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

to the objects of recitation. Many have taken no 
further pains to inform themselves upon this point, than 
merely to acquaint themselves with some of the leading 
modes. They take it for granted that the practice of 
reciting is all right, of course, since it is customary. 
But the time when it was not customary, except in 
a few branches, — such as reading and spelling, — still 
lingers in the memory of many of the present genera- 
tion. But modern improvements have wiped out 
many of the old usages, and brought about a radical 
change, and with that change many inconsistencies. 
It is but reasonable to suppose, however, that in so 
great a revolution, there should obtain many errors, 
mostly of an opposite extreme. And so we find it in 
recitation. From the extreme of no recitation, or 
scarcely none, we find all recitation, or nearly all. 
From no explanations, it is all explanations; and the 
pupil has only to place himself in the receptive attitude, 
and the mental pabulum is dealt out to his taste. The 
process of deglutition is scarcely necessary, to say noth- 
ing of mastication, since the acquisition is made so 
easy by dilution, as not to require much effort on the 
part of the scholar. His delicate nerves are not to 
be disturbed by any such, vulgar process as that of 
thinking. That is already done to his hand. The 
processes of simplification have gone on, to such an 
extent, that the various subjects of learning have be- 
come exceedingly simple — so simple indeed, in many 
cases, as to be absolutely silly. But these errors will 
be noticed in due order in the course of this chapter. 
We shall not attempt an exhaustive list of the ob- 
jects of recitation, since they are so numerous as to 
forbid any such effort. It is due the subject to say 
however, that the knowledge upon these points should 



RECITATION. 87 

be very definite. Both the teacher and the pupil, 
should know why they recite, and the objects to be 
gained by the recitation, or the probabilities are, that 
the lesson will neither be assigned nor studied in a 
proper manner. Among the objects to be kept before 
the mind, while conducting a recitation, the following 
may be named : 

1. To ascertain the extent of preparation, on the part 
of the pupil. According to the principle laid down 
in reference to " assigning lessons, " no more labor 
should be given, than can be thoroughly mastered by 
the pupil ; and then, when time for recitation arrives, 
every thing assigned should be demanded, when the 
aforesaid object can be ascertained. When a lesson is 
assigned in a proper manner, the pupil is laid under 
the most binding obligation to prepare it. Any fail- 
ure to fulfill that obligation, should be regarded as an 
act of willful disobedience, and treated accordingly. 
Indeed, I would never suffer a pupil for any cause, 
save that of unavoidable hindrance, to enjoy the bene- 
fits of the recitation, if he had not spent the required 
amount of time and effort in preparing the lesson. 
I would at once send him to his seat as an offender. 
1 am aware that this might seem like a harsh meas- 
ure ; and yet what are our recitations for? Are they 
to cover up the faults and defects of the pupil, or are 
they to expose and correct them ? Are they to pam- 
per and indulge laziness and disobedience, or are they 
to cultivate habits of industry, and prompt and willing 
obedience? 

A great many pupils are accustomed to drag them- 
selves along in recitation, hy depending upon their 
neighbors, or their shrewdness in guessing, good luck 
or some other equally reprehensible expedient; and 



88 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

sometimes, too, through excess of assurance, they oven 
make a fairer show than some others who have been 
diligent in the preparation of their lessons. But all 
this is wrong— morally wrong, — since it is lowering 
the standard of industry and order, and offering a 
temptation to others to neglect their duties likewise. 
Such scholars should at once be informed, that their 
progress in education is measured not by their good 
luck or shrewdness in evading its duties, but by their 
faithful discharge of these duties. 

It may be asked by some, " What shall be done 
with an offender who persists in disobeying — one, for 
instance, who would rather rejoice than do otherwise 
at an opportunity to be released from recitation ? " To 
this, I would answer, that if the additional labor of 
preparing and reciting two or three lessons at once, 
failed ; and if confinement to study or recitation dur- 
ing the hours of recess did not work a reform, I would 
treat it as I would any other act of disobedience of 
similar import; and I would bestow upon it such a 
punishment as would soon convince the offender, that 
it is no light thing thus to trifle with duty and au- 
thority. 

To ascertain how well the lesson has been prepared, 
I would have recourse to something like the follow- 
ing. The class being called, a question like the fol- 
lowing might be asked : "As many as have complied 
with the conditions of study will please to rise, or 
manifest it by the uplifted hand." These conditions 
should be well defined and well understood before- 
hand. It may not be necessary for all to study the 
same length of time, or even to go over the lesson the 
same number of times; but there should be a standard 
for every one, either individual or general, by which 



RECITATION. 89 

pupils are to be guided in their reports; or there might 
be several standards, and' those who could not reach 
the first, might reach the second or third, and so on. 

'Now the next thing will be, to test the correctness 
of these reports by actual examination or recitation. 
If they prove correct, all well : if not, then the pupil 
should be called upon for an explanation. This will 
be making a serious matter of recitation, and the 
scholars knowing that they will be called upon to re- 
port themselves thus accurately, and then be obliged 
to submit to the test of examination afterward, will 
be less likely to spend the time allotted to study, in 
idleness. They will not be over-anxious to expose 
themselves, in the presence of their companions and 
teacher, in the ridiculous attitude either of deception 
or failure. 

2. A second object of recitation is, To aid in a more 
thorough understanding of the subject matter of the lesson. 

The appositeness of this object will be seen at once : 
but there are some things belonging to it that need 
attention. For instance: some teachers seem to re- 
gard this as the only object of recitation ; and that it is 
most readily accomplished by rendering the labor of 
the pupil as light as possible. Hence they make it a 
point, either through pride of display, excess of good 
nature, or a misdirected zeal, to do as much of the re- 
citing themselves as possible. Having, perhaps, a tol- 
erable knowledge or understanding of the subject- 
matter ot recitation themselves, they seem to regard it 
as a sacred duty to lecture and explain the lesson all 
away, leaving the pupil nothing to do but the de- 
lightful (?) task of listening and learning (?), or, 
more properly feeding upon the mere husks of 
knowledge. 



90 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Now it has been frequently remarked; in the prog- 
ress of this work, that the pupil's advancement is 
measured by what he does more than by what he hears, 
or sees somebody else do. The teacher, therefore, has 
no more right to deprive the scholar of his recitation, 
than he has to deprive him of his food or clothing; 
and he would be regarded as rather a suspicious char- 
acter, if he should be caught plundering the chil- 
dren's dinner basket, or purloining a convenient ar- 
ticle of apparel, occasionally. 

It is proper to remark, however, in this connection, 
that much additional information may be given dur- 
ing recitation, and it is relevant to inquire just how 
much assistance should be rendered. To this, we 
would reply, that nothing should be told directly, 
that the pupil can find out for himself; that the glory 
of conquest belongs to him, by sacred right; that he 
should not be deprived of the luxury of thinking ; but 
that where light can be thrown upon a subject, either 
by word or act of the teacher, in the recitation are both 
the time and place, in which to do this. If difficult 
points have been laid over for future consideration, or 
experiment, the recitation affords the proper opportu- 
nity. It is one of its special objects to afford oppor- 
tunity to dispose of these things ; and all such cases 
as demand special attention, should be reserved for 
recitation. 

3. Another important object of recitation is " To aid 
in retaining the knowledge, or cultivating the power of 
memory" In this it becomes disciplinary, as indeed 
are all the modes of recitation, as well as those of 
study. It is a well-known principle that repetition 
aids the memory. The very process itself serves to 
fix faots and principles in the mind; and at the same 



RECITATION. 91 

time trains the pupil in the use of language. This 
matter is worthy of some consideration, since so much 
of .the success in learning depends upon the memory. 
It is a constant complaint among scholars, that they 
forget so easily. But the memory was not made to he 
forgetful, but ready and obedient. It was not made 
to be treacherous any more than the reason and under- 
standing were. There is no more necessity for forget- 
ting any thing that is properly learned, than there is 
for failing to understand a thing. When people com- 
plain of a bad memory, it is certain evidence of bad 
treatment, unless there is a natural deficiency, which 
is seldom the case where the organization in other 
respects is good. 

The memory is a true and faithful friend ; and it 
only asks to be treated with the same consideration 
with which other friends are treated, and it will prove 
as trusty. Many things, however, that are committed 
to it, or supposed to be committed, are disposed of so 
carelessly, that no particular responsibility rests any- 
where : hence when the memory is called upon to 
report, it answers very justly and innocently, " that 
such and such things never passed This way ; or if they 
did, their stay was so transient, and the acquaintance 
so slight, that no permanent impressions were made : 
consequently, we are not responsible." It should, 
therefore, be the especial object of every recitation, to 
fix securely and permanently in the mind every fact 
and principle in the lesson. 

4. The fourth and last object that we shall name, is 
the cultivation of the expressive powers. This will be 
inferred from what has been said upon this point in 
other places. Perhaps there is no higher object in 
reciting, than this. Recitation is the place in which 



92 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

we should correct inaccuracies of expression ; where 
we should cultivate clearness and accuracy, strength, 
beauty and richness of language — should call out the 
knowledge the pupil possesses, in the hest possible 
forms of expression. But it is a well-known fact that 
our pupils usually fail in this part of their duties ; and 
the inference is just as clear as the fact is notorious, 
that the difficulty arises, in a great measure, from 
careless and hasty recitations. Teachers are too prone 
to take for granted that a child knows a thing, either 
because he pretends to, or thinks he does, or makes 
some half-way, blundering answer that may be tor- 
tured into a remote reference to the point in hand. 

But it is not assuming too much to say, that a pupil 
does not know a thing as he -ought to know it, until 
he can tell it as he ought to tell it ; and it is equally 
certain, that he can not tell a thing as he ought to tell 
it, until he knows it as he ought to know it. One of 
the special objects of recitation, therefore, is to afford 
time and opportunity for the cultivation of the express- 
ive powers. This relates to clearness, distinctness, 
and loudness of utterance, as well as perspicuity and 
comprehensiveness of style. The manner is of scarcely 
less importance, as an educational object, than the mat- 
ter itself. They aid each other, and are both equally 
susceptible of cultivation. 

Article 2 — Conditions and Requisites. 

These departments of the subject assume consider- 
able importance, when it is remembered that they 
involve, to some extent, the preparations and qualifi- 
cations of teachers. A brief allusion must suffice, 
however, since but one class of qualifications can be 



RECITATION. 93 

considered, and since those of a more general char- 
acter have been discussed in former chapters. 

There is, however, a class of conditions and req- 
uisites, to which we propose to call a brief attention, 
under the head of conveniences, before considering 
those which belong to the teacher. 1. The size of 
the school-room is a matter that ought to be consid- 
ered. Of course, it should be ample. One of the 
chief objections to our present style of building and 
architecture, is a want of room. Teachers are per- 
plexed, discouraged, and absolutely prevented from 
adopting some of the best improvements in recitation, 
simply for the want of room. They can not bring 
their classes to the recitation seat, or dismiss them 
from it, in any kind of order; nor yet can they ar- 
range them in convenient forms while there. Every 
thing has to be huddled together, in the most con- 
fused manner, in order to afford space for the occu- 
pants of the seats. A teacher in this predicament, 
has about as much chance to do his duties well, as a 
ship-carpenter would have in a cellar-kitchen. There 
must be room, — room to breathe, room to walk, room 
to stand and room to talk ; room for motions of body 
and mind; for this too, must have room. The world is 
wide enough and high enough for all that is on it, and 
much more, without crowding. The policy therefore, 
of huddling children together like sheep in a pen, 
and that too, for the purposes of educating them, is 
too much like burying a few bushels of corn in one 
spot, for the purpose of planting it. It is horrible ! 
Half the corn would rot under such circumstances; 
and we should hardly expect that the children would 
fare much better, in some of our scriool-houses. The 
enormity is so great that it should not be tolerated. 



94 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

There should be, at least twenty square feet for ever 7 
pupil, which would make our rooms from thirty to 
forty feet square, or about those dimensions. 

2. The form of the room is another condition that 
increases or decreases the pleasures and benefits of 
recitation. It would be impossible, however, to give 
special directions here, that would apply to the var- 
ious styles of school-furniture, order of seating, and 
other conveniences. The arrangement of the desks 
and other furniture, should be such as to allow the 
greatest freedom of movement, and other conveniences 
in reference to ventilation, heat and light. There 
should also be a large open space or court, for physical 
exercises, usually situated just in front of the teacher's 
stand, and near the recitation seats. The propriety of 
this arrangement will be seen, when we come to speak 
more directly of modes of reciting. 

3. Recitation seats are necessary, as we have inti- 
mated above. A school-room without them would 
be like a dry-goods store without a counter. When 
an examination of the goods is to be made, the 
customer is obliged to visit all the shelves and 
drawers, much to the disadvantage of all parties. 
So, when the members of a class for recitation have 
to be arranged, one in one part of the room, and 
another in another, their attention is correspondingly 
distracted ; and the teacher's force is often expend- 
ed in fruitless efforts to collect and concentrate the 
scattered fragments of mind, that this arrangement 
has a tendency to dissipate. 

4. As a general thing, the recitation demands black- 
boards, maps, globes, charts and other apparatus. 
The first of these are so necessary, that no teacher can 
do without them. One should occupy a position near 



RECITATION. 95 

the teacher's stand, and fronting the class, so that ex- 
planations ma} be given with as little inconvenience 
as possible. The others, for the use of the class, might 
occupy all the space between windows and doors, not 
needed for the cabinet of "common things," but as 
convenient to the recitation seats as possible; and 
they should be ample enough to allow twenty pupils 
to operate upon them at the same time. 

The use of maps, globes and other apparatus will 
be readily inferred, and is best learned from actual 
observation and practice. They add much to the in- 
terest and benefits of recitation, since they render 
tangible many things that otherwise appear difficult 
and abstruse. 

5. For small children, a cabinet of common things, 
composed of collections of as many of the objects 
from the three great kingdoms of nature, as can be 
procured, together with artificial objects, pictures and 
models of those that can not be had, forms the best 
conditions and requisites to their peculiar mode of 
recitation and study, that can be devised. The object- 
lessons described in another place, demand these. 

6. Previous preparation by the pupil, is a requisite 
which has been alluded to in another place. No pupil, 
therefore, should presume upon his ability to recite 
the lesson, without having assured himself of that 
fact, by careful study beforehand. 

7. A thorough knowledge of the lesson by the 
teacher, is a condition of the first importance. He 
should know, before the class is called, what the lesson 
is, and what is in it. The mode of assigning it will 
aid much in this respect ; but in the majority of cases, 
the lesson should be carefully reviewed by the teacher, 
on the previous day. Other text-books beside the one 



96 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

used, should also be consulted; for there is great 
danger of his becoming opinionated and circumscribed 
in his views, unless he is accustomed to take liberal 
surveys of men and things. This will also give 
greater freshness and accuracy to wiiat is taught, to 
say nothing about the collateral matter with which he 
may enliven the exercise. 

No teacher should presume to hear a class recite, in 
the common branches at least, where he is compelled 
to hold a book in his hand to guide or prompt him, 
either in the questions or answers. Unfortunately, in 
many of the text-books, the questions which the 
author thinks ought to be asked (a presumption on 
his part without much foundation), are placed in the 
margin of the page, or interspersed for greater con- 
venience (?) through the entire lesson. Now, if the 
teacher is compelled to resort to these questions, he 
becomes a mere parasite. He teaches merely with a 
reflected light; and often the orb whose rays he bor- 
rows, is a feeble one. Judge then of the feebleness 
of the light he sheds. He becomes to the pupil what 
the moon is to the earth, a pale, sickly orb, whose 
light is only the faint reflections of the sun. It might 
shine upon the earth for a million of years, and never 
cause one single bud to start, or flower to bloom, or a 
spire of grass to grow. The earth would grow colder 
and colder all the time, just as some scholars do, intel- 
lectually and morally, under this second-hand teaching. 
But it is the sun, the warm, mild, yet energizing rays 
of the sun, that penetrate the bosom of nature, and 
cause her great heart to beat with emotions of life 
and joy. So with the true teacher: he should shine 
with no reflected light ; he should warm with no bor- 
rowed heat; but should vitalize every principle of 



RECITATION !>< 

intelligence in the child with his own native-born 
vigor. 

If the teacher is allowed to consult the book in 
presence of the scholars, during the recitation, for the 
purpose of asking the questions, or, as it frequently 
happens, of refreshing his memory on the answer, I 
see no good reason why the pupil should not have the 
same privilege. But whether he has such a right or 
not, he is very apt to take it; since the absence of the 
teacher's eye, in chase after his question or answer, 
offers a fine opportunity for the scholar to take that 
liberty ; and he will be possessed of more than the 
ordinary share of virtue, for such a school, and with 
such a teacher, whose every act gives the lie to his pro- 
fession, if he will not improve it. 

The teacher should have the lesson and all its bear- 
ings well fixed in mind, before recitation commences; 
so that he may deal out as occasion demands, and not 
be perplexed or embarrassed with hunting up ques- 
tions and answers during recitation. He needs all the 
mind with which he is- favored, to direct the recitation, 
even if he is perfectly familiar with it, without hav- 
ing to chase it up, or borrow it, as he goes along, 
and, at the same time, watch a set of unruly scholars 
that may be nearly as bad in this respect as he is 
himself. 

There is another evil practice that deserves notice in 
this connection: it is that of marking off a certain 
portion of the text, or so much of it as is supposed 
will satisfy the question. Neither scholar nor teacher 
should be allowed to indulge in this whim, since it 
destroys all connection of the subject, and gives the 
knowledge, if it gives any at all, in piecemeal. If the 
text-book needs any abridging, it should be done by 



98 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

general consent of the profession, and not mutilated 
by every bungler that sees proper to tinker at it, and 
hack it to pieces. 

8. A cultivated voice and manner, are requisites 
of the first importance. This qualification applies, of 
course, to both teacher and pupil. The powers of the 
human voice, as well as its mechanism, are most re 
markable. Its tones may soothe the wildest passions 
to rest, or rouse them into a flame. They may wake 
the purest and loftiest desires, or provoke the very 
demon of hate. There is no gift to mortals, save that 
of mind itself, whose interpreter the voice is, that pos- 
sesses such wonderful properties. Its meek, subdued, 
and patient strains are readily distinguished from the 
harsher tones of petulance, anger or revenge, not only 
by man himself, but by beast, bird and reptile. If joy 
gladden the heart, and sparkle in the eye, the tones 
of the voice swell out in sweet liquid strains, or in 
merry shouts. If sorrow depress it, the mournful 
cadence tells of the grief within. If joy and holy 
desires swell it, the deep music of its earnest tones 
awake the loftiest emotions of the soul. If hatred, 
and diabolic rage lurk in its secret chambers, the 
rough, dry, sharp, sudden, half- formed intonations 
grate like saws or files upon the delicate sensibilities. 
If deceit, guile and hypocrisy harbor there, the tell- 
tale voice is sure to reveal the fact. If treachery, 
cowardice and guilt, its very accents speak it all. If 
fidelity, bravery and innocence, the noble, manly 
tones of the voice speak the sentiments within. A 
man need not tell that he is heroic, highminded and 
pure ; his voice and manner reveal it all : nor yet need 
he strive to conceal his meanness of purpose, his little 
soul, his base designs and cowardly spirit ; for lo ! his 



RECITATION. 99 

voice, true to the instincts of nature, lias stamped him 
with his true value. 

The voice is the harp of the soul ; the music it plays 
is the exponent of the inner life ; and the world's ears 
the interpreters of the song. I know that hypocrisy 
may be " skilled to grace a devil's purpose with an 
angel's face;" and that the tones of the voice may 
affect the purity and sweetness of the dulcet, when the 
most fiendish designs inspire it; but these designs can 
not be long concealed ; for the voice, in its own machi- 
nations, will betray to one skilled in human nature 
(and children are no mean judges in the art) the most 
subtle and determined efforts. I know too, that many 
a noble purpose is misjudged and defeated for the 
want of culture of voice and manner, but this only 
argues more strongly the necessity of cultivation. It 
therefore becomes the teacher, above all other persons, 
since he deals with the young, since his voice is con- 
tinually sounding in the ear of childhood, to cultivate 
that voice to the^highest possible degree of excellence ; 
to cultivate it not to dissembling, not to sycophancy; 
but to give the true utterance and potency to the pure 
thoughts and sentiments within. 

There are four things that should be kept in mind 
in the cultivation of the voice : 1. The naturalness of 
the voice. 2. Its quantity,or loudness. 3. Its quality, 
or pitch. 4. Its variety, or flexibility. 

1. Some teachers seem to think it necessary to 
address their pupils in an assumed voice and manner— 
in some affected, dignified or commanding tone. 
Scarcely any thing will sooner render such teachers 
ridiculous in the estimation of the shrewd and ob- 
serving Ko assumed voice or manner should ever be 
tolerated in the school-room. Of course, if there are 



100 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

natural deficiencies in the voice, these should be cor- 
rected ; if there are obstructions, these should be 
removed ; but this can all be done, without interfering 
with or destroying, in the least, the naturalness of the 
voice, but rather rendering it more natural. Let the 
teacher, therefore, use his own voice, but make that 
voice as perfect as possible. 

2. Many teachers are in the habit of speaking too 
loud. This arises more from habit than from any 
thing else. I remember that I once visited a school of 
some reputation, in which the teacher was addicted 
to this fault. I was invited to take a seat upon the 
stand, to listen to a recitation in geography. The 
members of the class were called, and took their seats 
within six feet of the teacher's desk. All things being 
in readiness, the teacher arose, and, having naturally 
a stentorian voice, he pronounced the first question 
with such startling loudness that I, supposing him to 
be in jest, began to laugh. But I soon found out my 
mistake. I was sadly out of order. The sober faces 
that confronted me from every quarter, and the earnest 
demeanor of the teacher, soon convinced me that it 
was all in sober earnest. Question after question 
followed, in such thundering peals, that I began to 
seek for an explanation by supposing some to be deaf. 
But this supposition was soon abandoned, for, when 
addressing the pupils on other points, the teacher 
dropped his voice down to a moderate tone. And 
what was still more surprising, the pupils in answering 
the questions were about as far on the opposite ex- 
treme. The contrast was most striking and amusing. 
First, there was an almost deafening scream which, I 
am confident, could have been heard a half mile, and 
then the response would come in a faint whimper, 



RECITATION. 101 

which, both taken together, reminded one of the 
deafening roar of the lion, followed by the faint squeak- 
ing of mice. 

Now, no one need be told that this is wrong. The 
children's ears, in this instance, however, seemed 
hardened to it, so that it produced apparently little 
or no sensation, except a slight scowl which show T ed, 
doubtless, the remains of an ancient sensation, such as 
I experienced. And thus it is. If it should thunder 
all the time in continuous roar, we should cease to 
notice it. It would fail to produce an impression. 
It would be just as if it did not thunder at all. 
The teacher, therefore, who expects to make an im- 
pression with the powers of his voice, should re- 
member that it consists more in the richness of its 
tones, and in pleasing and appropriate variety, than 
in either pitch or power. The teacher is very apt to 
err in excess of loudness, for as he warms in his 
subject, the animation unconsciously leads him into 
loud and boisterous talking. Let him remember, 
however, that a teacher can be animated without 
being boisterous ; and that the tones of his voice can 
be impressive without being loud. 

It is hardly necessary to add that the teacher should 
speak sufficiently loud, and with sufficient animation 
to be heard and felt by all who may be listening. A 
lazy, dull and lifeless teacher, has no business to work 
with children. He might, however, be of some ser- 
vice where a soporific is needed ; but where minds 
are to be energized, thoughts to be developed, and 
general activity to be induced and directed, something 
more is needed than the prosy cogitations of a drone. 
The teacher must be himself, in actions and thoughts, 
what he would have his pupils become. 



102 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

3. Another fault to which teachers, especially fe- 
males, are liable, that of choosing too high a key upon 
which to speak. This, when accompanied with loud- 
ness and boisterousness, as it is most likely to be, be- 
comes exceedingly disagreeable. I have seen a whole 
school wrought up to a pitch of the most unhappy 
feeling, just by the harsh, squeaking, cat-like voice of 
the teacher. Mischief, uneasiness, discontent or stolid 
indifference was visible upon almost every face. No 
one seemed to know why he felt unhappy. No one 
suspected the instrument of torture ; yet all felt it. 
Mischief and rebellion seemed rife; and the teacher's 
voice, threats or entreaties were so far from having any 
tendency to allay this feeling, that they only aggravated 
it. But let the rich, subdued, mellow, lute-like tones 
of voice, inspired by the deep, solemn earnestness of 
the soul, fall upon those ears, and a change will come 
over the spirit of their feelings. You can almost see 
the tears start to their eyes. These sweet tones are 
the melody of the soul, and they touch the soul, 
which yields responsive to their wooing. If teachers 
could only estimate the mischief and unhappiness their 
tones of voice inspire, they would be astonished; and 
if they could only realize a tenth part of the good they 
might accomplish, they would at once set about cul- 
tivating this powerful instrument of good or evil. 

4. Variety is a quality of voice, that should be cul- 
tivated. A teacher who talks upon all topics with 
about the same degree of force, and on the same key, 
soon becomes monotonous, and will lose both the 
power to make impression and to control his school. 
There are occasions that demand the loud, terrible 
tones that shake the very soul ; and then from that 
on down, through all the pleasing varieties, to the 



RECITATION. 103 

gentlest murmur that falls upon the ear, like the 
sweet zephyr. There are occasions too, that demand 
the deep, solemn, awful gravity, that searches the 
very depths of the heart ; and on from that to the 
tripping merriment and humorous glee, that shake 
the very sides with laughter. All these varieties are 
necessary, and will constitute one of the teacher's 
strongest forces, both in governing and in teaching. 

There is still another quality which properly belongs 
to requisites, though it refers more to the language 
itself, than to vocalization. We mean the style of 
expression. This may include, in addition to what 
has already been said, clearness, distinctness, simpli- 
city and purity. We propose nothing further here, 
than a bare allusion to these properties, and simply to 
urge upon the student the necessity of studying 
them from some of our best authors. 

Many teachers, in their efforts to use good language, 
overreach the matter, making use of terms in explana- 
tion, which are really more difficult to comprehend, 
than the things they were intended to explain. All 
definitions should be plainer than the things defined, 
or they cease to be definitions. All explanations 
should be couched in language precise and definite, 
and not difficult of comprehension. 

Some again, are very careless in their use of lan- 
guage, not unfrequently making use of expressions, 
not only of doubtful signification, but often mean- 
ing the opposite from what they intend. Their lan- 
guage lacks perspicuity. Others again, have a labored 
style, and fail to render themselves intelligible for the 
want of simplicity and purity. While I would not 
contend that the teacher should descend to the level 
with his pupils in the use of language, or that he 



104 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

should resort to the mere common -place expressions, 
and never strive to elevate and purify their language; 
yet I would have him make use of no terms or ex- 
pressions, in his explanations, which the pupil can not 
readily comprehend. I would have his language 
plain without boldness, exact without stiffness, rich 
without superfluity, elegant without affectation, pure 
without poverty, simple without being silly, and child- 
like without being childish. 

The manner and personal appearance of the teacher 
have much to do with his success, and hence are re- 
quisites to be considered in this connection. We shall 
speak, however, of those only which concern recitation. 

The foundation of all good manners is a good heart, 
without which all outside culture seems to be thrown 
away, since it is often used to cover up wicked designs, 
and to dress vice in a most attractive garb. But the 
good heart without the good manners is often inca- 
pable of exerting a good influence, from that very 
fact. Therefore the personal appearance and the de- 
meanor of the teacher should be as attractive as 
possible, since his influence for good is often lost, not 
only from a repulsive air and demeanor, but from a 
want of neatness, cleanliness and appropriateness in 
style of dress, etc. But a bare allusion to those points 
must suffice here, since we propose to speak only of 
recitation. They have been pretty thoroughly dis- 
cussed in the popular treatises of the day. 

We remark, therefore, that the manner in recitation 
should be guarded from, at least, two extremes, viz. : 
too great reserve on the one hand, and too great 
familiarity on the other. Perhaps more err in the 
first direction than in the second. Some teachers get 
the idea that in order to be dignified they must affect 



RECITATION. 105 

and air of dignity, when in fact nothing is more de- 
structive to true dignity. It will soon render them 
ridiculous. Then again, the cold reserve which some 
teachers assume, when communicating with their 
pupils, is utterly destructive of that sympathy which 
is indispensable to good teaching. Such teachers 
repel rather than attract, and freeze the feeling and 
thoughts, rather than warm them into life. True 
earnestness and honesty are the foundation stones of 
true dignity ; for, whenever a teacher becomes too 
solicitous about his dignity, he is apt to lose it. Take 
care of the children and the teaching, and let the 
dignity take care of itself. 

On the other hand, if too great familiarity is shown, 
the pupil soon loses a proper respect for the teacher. 
It is not necessary, however, for him to descend to any 
low familiarity, in order to secure the confidence and 
love of children. Indeed they usually become sus- 
picious of, or hold in absolute contempt, any mock 
sympathy or forced familiarity. He should, therefore, 
manifest on all occasions no more interest in their 
welfare, and no more willingness to sympathize with 
and assist them in their duties, than he really feels. 
Let him rather show by his actions that his goodness 
exceeds his professions, if he would exercise an un- 
limited sway over the hearts and minds of his pupils. 
This continual fussing with and flattering of children, 
are detrimental both to mind and morals, while a mock 
sympathy will deepen and settle the convictions of 
dishonesty in them ; and to run at the beck of every 
pupil and assist him whenever his whims may demand 
it, will not only make a slave of the teacher, but will 
destroy all the self-reliance and manly independence 
of the pupil. 



106 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 

The teacher should avoid all rough and coarse ex- 
pressions in class, all ambiguous and unchaste allusions, 
or anything that may be construed into vulgarity, 
or lead to bad inferences. His intercourse should be 
that of a gentleman, without forced pretensions, and 
his refinement should be of the highest and purest 
order. He should also avoid all bodily postures and 
gestures that partake either of waggishness or of fop- 
pishness, such, for instance, as sitting with feet 
elevated upon the stove or desk; The place for the 
feet is on or near the floor; and they are sadly out 
of place when they stray to other positions. Some 
teachers again, seem greatly at a loss, unless their 
hands are busied either with pen, pencil, knife, or 
possibly toying with a button, while engaged in 
recitation. While I would not urge that the teacher 
put himself in a straight jacket during recitation, 
yet he should avoid the habits alluded to, as much as 
possible. He should have control of his body as well 
as his mind. 

Most of the leading characteristics of the teacher 
have been alluded to in different parts of this work. 
We refer to some of them in this connection, for the 
purpose of showing their application in recitations. 

1. Order and arrangement. Every one must have 
noticed that some teachers accomplish a great deal 
more than others in the same length of time. They 
do not seem to be in a hurry; yet everything moves 
with certainty and precision. No false steps are taken 
to be retraced, and every stroke tells. Others again 
are continually in the midst of business and excite- 
ment. They are pressed beyond measure. They are 
in furious haste, but do not seem to accomplish much. 
Now the simple difference is this: the first have order 



RECITATION. 1 07 

and arrangement ywhich they carry into the recitations; 
others lack these qualities. The first dispose of one 
piece of business before they commence another ; 
the others have a dozen things on hand at once, all 
calling loudly for attention ; and the poor, distracted 
beings fly from one to the other, without the ability to 
concentrate their forces anywhere. 

2. Energy and Dispatch are characteristics that 
ought never to be separated. Both classes of teachers 
above described, possess energy ; but the distinctions 
are sufficiently obvious. Energy, without boisterous- 
ness, and dispatch without haste or confusion, should 
mark all the movements of the teacher. 

3. Honesty and Fidelity. The occasions for dishon- 
esty in recitation, on the part of both teacher and 
pupil, are very numerous. Some of these have already 
been noticed. It is sufficient, perhaps, to add that 
any thing like deception in recitation, has a tendency 
to lower the standard of morality, and to breed con- 
tempt in the minds of the pupils and teacher, for each 
other. If a mistake has been made by either party, 
duty, honesty, morality and policy demand that it be 
frankly and candidly corrected, and as publicly as it 
was committed. If the teacher is so unfortunate as 
not to understand a thing, the moment he is called 
upon for information or explanation, it is certainly no 
dishonor for him to say so. Nothing will be lost, but 
much gained in the end by telling the truth. Lyin^ 
is monstrous, and always out of order. There never 
was an occasion for it, and it is safe to say there never 
will be. Not the remotest good can come of it, be 
cause the whole universe is opposed to it. The very 
laws of mind and matter are predicated upon the su- 
premacy of truth, and they rebel at falsehood. What 



108 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

good, even the remotest, then, can come from violating 
these laws? To pretend, either by word or by infer- 
ence, to know a thing when ignorant of it, to put off the 
scholar with the plea, "I did know it, but forgot,'' or 
" I have not time now," or "Wait till to-morrow; " or 
to attempt to palm off an error upon tnem, to screen 
ourselves from blame; or to hide our ignorance behind 
a multitude of words, argues a state of depravity too 
low to be tolerated in the teacher for a moment. The 
state of public and of private morals will never improve 
until teachers and parents learn to tell the truth, and 
teach their children the same lesson. I would not 
make a confessional of the school, for I think it has a 
higher mission to perform ; neither would I make it 
an instrument for instilling falsehood and deceit in 
the minds of the young. 

4. Integrity and Fidelity in the discharge of duty, are 
other matters of great importance to teachers. It is 
not an uncommon thing for teachers to make large 
promises to pupils, either by way of encouragement, or 
to rid themselves from present obligation, without the 
remotest prospect of ever meeting them. Children, in 
their innocence of the faithlessness that obtains in 
higher (?) circles, expect the fulfillment of these, and 
their sense of right and w r rong is shocked if they are 
not fulfilled. It is a notorious custom also, for teach- 
ers to threaten and banter with their pupils. This is 
not only a shameful impropriety, however thought- 
lessly it may be committed, but a sin of most disas- 
trous consequences. It is sufficient for the present to 
say, that teachers have no right to elevate the hopes 
or to excite the fears of their pupils, needlessly. This 
practice, however, soon fails to do either; but the im- 
moral tendencies, which may be easily inferred by the 



UKCITATION. 109 

reader, are still worse. Nothing, therefore, should be 
promised that can not be performed, or delayed that 
can be done now; and no threats at all should be 
made. Threats and promises, for the most part, are 
out of place in the school-room. The ready-pay system 
works better both ways. 

5. Gentleness and Patience are in constant demand. 
Gentleness, with refinement, is a virtue of such capti- 
vating merits, that it commends itself to the regard of 
all. In this sense it is the opposite of violence and vul- 
garity. What the sunshine and rain-drops are to flow- 
ers, gentleness is to the heart of childhood. It winds 
its certain way into the affections of youth, and even 
into the corrupt and depraved nature of the dissolute 
and abandoned. It stirs the fountains of love in the 
one and opens the door of repentance to the other. 
Nothing seems more out of place than harsh and bru- 
tal treatment of children. But there is no virtue for 
which there is greater demand in recitation*, than pa- 
tience or forbearance. Some children are weak and 
timid, others are bold and self-conceited. Some are 
dull and stupid, and some are willfully and incorrigibly 
vicious. All these cases, and a great many more that 
might be named, demand different degrees and quali- 
ties of patience. Indeed, there must be no impatience 
or petulance. These are always out of place. 

It is related of the celebrated Dr. Adam Clark, that 
when a child, he was remarkable for nothing but his 
seeming stupidity. His mother had undertaken to 
teach him some verses, supposing, as most mothers 
do, that the only evidence of intellectual promise con- 
sisted in a liking for books and progress in learning. 
She had labored long, faithfully, patiently, and seem- 
ingly to no purpose; when the father of the lad, a 



110 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

witness of the scene and of the mother's final triumph, 
having long before lost all patience, exclaimed : " But 
how could you have patience to tell that blockhead 
the same thing twenty times before he learned it?" 
" Because, my dear," was the meek but laconic reply, 
" if I had stopped with the nineteenth time, I should 
have lost all my labor." 

This example of patience and perseverance is worthy 
of imitation. The teacher is too apt to bestow praise 
where it is least deserved and least needed. He is 
pleased with the smart scholars ; and it seems natural 
that he should be. But early development is little 
evidence of intellectual greatness, as the subsequent 
history of our smart boys and girls too often proves. 

Grace Greenwood tells a story which is to the point, 
here. She was visiting an esteemed and talented 
friend of hers, who, unfortunately, had fallen a victim 
in early life, to books and colleges; but who had es- 
caped to the country to mend his broken health, and 
save his family from a like calamity. During a pleas- 
ant summer afternoon, a little boy some eight years 
old, the son of our friend, was having a frolicking time 
with a large Newfoundland dog. Witnessing their 
playful gambols upon the green sward before the door, 
Grace, who, it is said, has a natural fondness for chil- 
dren, remarked to her friend, "Why, what a fine, noble 
boy you have there ! " " Well," coolly remarked the 
friend, " he is not pretty, nor very smart ; but he is 
honest and healthy : he is innocent and good-natured ; 
he is affectionate and obedient; he never tells lies, 
and, tbank God, he dont know his letters /" 

Now this needs no comment ; but it is a severe com- 
mentary upon the popular opinion that children are 
smart only when they give early indications of aptness 



RECITATION. Ill 

to learn from books, the excess of which is rather an 
unfavorable omen than otherwise. I should ask no 
stronger indications of future mental imbecility, than 
precociousness, or that a child should abandon hia 
hoop and ball, his sports and romps, and betake him- 
self to books and moping study. The boys and girls 
that give the least promise, those upon whom we 
are accustomed to look in school, as the dull ones, or 
the mischievous ones, very frequently make our best 
men and women. Let patience then have her perfect 
work, and do not nip the tender bud by petulance or 
misjudgment. "The race is not always to the swift, 
nor the battle to the strong:" but to the faithful, pa- 
tient, toiling ones. They need our patience, sympa- 
thy and love, to smooth the asperities of their way, 
and to encourage them in their labors. 

Article 3— Methods. 

We have thus far spoken only of the objects and 
requisites of recitation. We shall now devote a few. 
pages to the consideration of methods, that" least im- 
portant part, since every one well versed in the 
philosophy of education will, to a great extent, be the 
manufacturer of his own particular plans. Never- 
theless, there are some general plans and principles 
that obtain every-where. They are matters of uni- 
versal application. These become the common heritage 
of all who enter the profession, and are no less 
practical than they are peculiar. Hence the experience 
of those who have been successful may be of great 
service in aiding those who are less experienced, to 
form their modes, etc., and as such we give these 
methods, repeating the caution, used in another part 
of this work, that " no one can be successful if he copy 



112 THE ART OF TEACIIINC 

the entire plans of another." " That a teacher's suc- 
cess must be the product of his own skill." " He must 
be the architect of his own fortune." " That particular 
methods are serviceable only so far as they can be gen- 
eralized; and are thus suggestive of others;" There 
are, however, a few general directions which logically 
precede the special modes ; and indeed all that is really 
worthy of special notice in the methods of recitation, 
may be discussed under these. They have reference 
more immediately to the manner in which lessons 
should be recited, and therefore apply more directly 
to the pupil than to the teacher. 

Section 1 — Completeness — is a condition in reci- 
tation that should not be overlooked. There is a very 
common failing among teachers of all grades, respect- 
ing this one thing. It shows itself chiefly under the 
two following forms: First, in fragmentary answers ; 
Second, in insufficient answers in other respects. It 
is no common thing to hear questions and answers 
like the following : 

1. " In what part of British America, near several 
lakes, does the MackenzieEiver rise ? " 

Answer. "Central." 

2. " What mountains in North America, extending 
from the northern part of British America, in a south- 
ern direction, through Washington and Oregon Ter- 
ritories, in the United States, separating Nebraska and 
Kansas Territories from Utah, and thence branching 
oft* in several divisions in New Mexico ; and termi- 
nating finally in what are called the Sierra Madre, 
near the southwestern boundary of the United States?" 

Answer. " Rocky." 

3. " What town in southeastern Virginia, celebrated 



RECITATION. 118 

for a remarkable battle, fought there in 1781, by the 
Americans and French on the one side, under the 
command of General Washington; and the British, 
under the command of Lord Cornwallis, in which the 
latter was defeated and captured, surrendering the 
whole force under his command, to the Americans?" 
Answer. "Yorktown." 

4. " Suppose you wish to calculate the interest on a 
note for three years, six months, and twenty-seven 
days : after you have found the interest on one dollar, 
at the given rate per cent, and for the given time ; 
what do you do with this,— divide or multiply it by the 
principal ?" 

Answer. ''Multiply." And the same course is 
pursued in other branches. 

In an example like the following, the evil may be 
seen in a slightly different light, 

5. "Where does the Mississippi River empty?" 
The pupil having perhaps associated the words " Miss- 
issippi," "empty" and "Gulf of Mexico" together, 
the latter would be the answer. But on reversing 
or changing the questions thus : # " What flows into the 
Gulf of Mexico?" or " What took place at York- 
town ? " " What mountains in North America ? " it 
has been found, in many instances, that no intelligent 
account could be given. 

Now we do not claim that all of these are the exact 
words copied from the text-books upon these sciences; 
yet they are but fair samples of them, especially of 
some that have been manufactured or distorted by the 
teachers themselves, in order to render them more 
easily answered : and the answers are just what 
children would ordinarily give, the fault being more 
with the questions than the answers; since they cir- 
1.0 



114 THE ART QF TEACHING. 

cumscribe them to one or two words. All the pupil 
really has to do, in such cases, is to commit to memory 
a word or two, usually under each question, and to be 
careful not to get the answers confounded, one with 
another. The evil exists in all stages of development, 
from the very worst, on till it can scarcely be per- 
ceived. 

Now any one can see the evil tendencies of this 
practice. It is destructive of all progress, since it re- 
moves, in a great measure, all obligation from the 
pupil, to say nothing about the bad habits it fosters. 
Instead, therefore, of the questions containing so much 
of the information, which belongs properly to the an- 
swer, it should only call up distinctly the points upon 
which answer is demanded, leaving the pupils to re- 
ply to them. And instead of these mere fragmentary 
answers, or scarcely any answer at all, each one, as a 
general thing, should be a complete sentence ; and in 
most instances, should include the question itself, or 
so much of it, as shall be necessary to make an entire 
sentence. Thus in the first instance : " Where is the 
Mackenzie river?" Answer. " The Mackenzie river 
rises in the central part of British America (naming 
the lakes etc.), flows in a north-western direction, and 
empties its waters into the Northern Ocean '* (giving 
the length and tributaries, etc., if desirable). 

Take a case in arithmetic. Thus: "How do you 
multiply a fraction by a whole number.' , Answer. 
" To multiply a fraction by a whole number, we either 
multiply the numerator by the whole number, and 
under this product write the denominator, or, when 
it can be done without a remainder, we divide the 
denominator by the whole number, and write the 
quotient under the numerator, and reduce, if neces- 



RECITATION. 115 

sary, " etc. The same course should be pursued with 
all rules and definitions, except, perhaps, in rapid re- 
views, or when the pupil is known to be familial 
with them. The clearness, distinctness and complete- 
ness of utterance, adds very materially to the clearness 
and comprehensiveness of the understanding. 

Now compare the answers given in the first instances 
with those in the last, and tell me which conveys the 
most intelligence, which the most discipline, and which 
will make the readiest and most exact scholars. Which 
of the two methods is the easier for the teacher, — the 
long questions (especially when they have to be read 
from a book, during the time in which the teacher's 
eye must be upon the class, to prevent them from a 
like calamity), or the short questions and long answers, 
throwing the burden of labor on the pupil where it is 
needed? Which contains the greater force, — a half 
sentence, or a whole sentence ? Which the most 
beauty ? Which will cultivate the mind to the great- 
er extent, — a part of the truth, or the whole truth ? 
Which would be of the greater demand in a Court 
of Justice? The one is just as much more forcible 
than the other, for the purposes for which it is in- 
tended, as a whole charge of powder is than a half or 
a hundredth part. Every answer therefore, should be 
an entirety, and should have some immediate connec- 
tion with the question. 

The case of insufficient answer is one not so marked 
in its effects. It differs from the one just described, 
in that it attempts completeness as to extent, but 
omits some important points. It is usually the result 
of weakness, want of culture, or carelessness. It 
applies, of course, as well to the incompleteness of 
articulation and vocalization, as to the poverty of 



116 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

language or expression. About the only remedy for 
this difficulty is practice. If a child fail to give a 
complete answer in relation! to this feature of it, it 
should be repeated even to the twentieth time, or 
until it is correct. Let it not be passed over by the 
teacher, with this excuse: u O, he knows, I guess; 
only he can't tell it. " " His power to express himself 
is so poor, that I do not require much of him:" 
while, in fact, this is the very reason why he is en- 
titled to extra attention. This is one of the objects 
of the recitation, viz., to cultivate the power of ex- 
pression. If the child were perfect, so far as further 
improvement is concerned, he need not recite ; and 
the same principle holds good with any imaginable 
degree of perfection : the nearer perfect, the less need 
of recitation ; and the further from it, the more, so 
far as that perfection which the recitation can impart, 
is concerned. Hence the child that halts the most, 
and makes the poorest recitation, should recite the 
most, however agreeable it may be to listen to the 
prompt ones recite. The recitation should therefore, 
be distributed among the pupils, according to the age, 
advancement and capacity. 

It will be found that many scholars require frequent 
repetition before they can overcome their difficulties. 
It will not usually remedy a deficiency to tell the child 
his answer is insufficient, or even to correct his errors 
for him ; he must mend his own errors if he would pro- 
fit by his labor. We can not correct bad habits by 
merely exposing them ; neither can we establish good 
ones by mere precept. We need the actual practice. It 
will not make a boy a good accountant, merely to show 
him the mistakes of others; nor yet will it to show 
him the beauty, order, and arrangement of the day- 



. RECITATION. 1 1 7 

book, journal and ledger. He must have the actual 
practice. To drive out a bad habit, we must establish 
a good one in its stead ; and to establish a habit of 
any kind requires practice and repetition. Hence, if a 
mistake is made by the pupil, it is not enough that 
the teacher say to him, "No; not that way : thus;" 
and then pass on ; but the error should be corrected 
by the scholar himself, and the correction repeated, and 
re-repeated, in class and out of class, in concert and 
alone, until it is thoroughly established ; or, the proba- 
bilities are, the very next time the thing is used, the 
same error will be committed. 

I recollect that I once listened to a recitation in elo- 
cution, by a class in one of our best colleges, when 
something like the following took place : The word 
"persist," I think, occurred three times in the same few 
paragraphs. The student read to the first, and pro- 
nounced it "perzist." " Ko," said the teacher, "that 
is pronounced c persist."; The pupil road on until it 
occurred again, when he pronounced it as before. 
" Persist," remarked the teacher. " Persist," responded 
the scholar, and read on, until he came to it the third 
time, when it again became " perzist," which was again 
corrected by the teacher. I then called upon the 
young man to read the same paragraph again; when 
all three of the 'perzists" came on in their regular order. 
I then called his attention to it, and requested him to 
pronounce it with me three times. He did so. I re- 
peated that process with him several times, after which 
I requested the whole class (some forty in number) to 
pronounce it in concert, for a successive number of 
times. I then turned to the young man, and asked 
him to pronounce it, and it was " persist " every time 
after that. The word beneath (sub vocal " th ") was 



118 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

corrected in a similar manner. The same thing is 
tiue of sentences, rules, definitions, and answers to 
questions generally. If they are not complete, they 
should not be passed over until they are. It would 
not be well to tax the time of the recitation to a very 
great extent, in this repeating process ; or this may 
nduce some to defer learning the lesson until they 
come in class. But this may easily be prevented by 
care. 

The same principle holds good with problems, Ques- 
tions, examples, and all slate and board exercises. 
They never should be left or called right until they 
are complete in all their parts. Not a decimal point 
or the most apparently insignificant sign or mark 
should be understood; for, in business transactions, it 
would not be considered satisfactory in a note of $1300, 
to say that the decimal point is understood between 
the digits and ciphers. The difference, however, be- 
tween $1300 and $13.00, is not greater than the differ- 
ence between right and wrong, morally speaking, in 
any other respect. Let the most scrupulous care be 
exercised, therefore, in order to secure completeness, at 
least in those two particulars named ; for " Whatever 
is worth doing at all is worth doing well." 

Section 2 — Definiteness and Exactness are quali- 
ties that should be cultivated. We have spoken 
already upon some topics nearly allied to these, while 
discussing the objects and requisites of recitation. 
Their application to methods, however, is peculiar. 
Definiteness and exactness, as used here, differ from 
completeness in its two phases alluded to, in that while 
the latter remedies the two evils, viz., fragmentary and 
insufficient answers, and relates to fullness and integrity 



RECITATION. 119 

of answer, or to quantity ; definiteness and exactness re- 
fer to precision and perspicuity in the use of language, 
or to quality rather than quantity. 

It is not claimed that the terms here used have the 
exact logical or metaphysical meaning in themselves, 
that we have attached to them : but it will be remem- 
bered they are used simply in a technical sense, and 
for the purpose, chiefly, of distinguishing and describ- 
ing practices, etc., that are nearly similar. Teachers 
are not sufficiently careful to secure plain and precise 
answers ; and the pupils come to think, by and by, 
that almost any answer will do ; often depending upon 
the fortune of the occasion for manufacturing one, or 
resorting to the guessing process, by which they are 
enabled to slide along somehow. Their knowledge 
exists in a kind of chaotic state. It lacks system and 
arrangement. Now it is the business of education to 
regulate this mass of vagrant matter, to point it, and 
energize it, to make of the seemingly dead carcass 
a living soul. 

One particular form of indefiniteness will be pointed 
out, from which others may be inferred. It exhibits 
itself at the blackboard, in some instances, where 
pupils have not had the advantages of early training in 
the use of marks and figures, such as described in a 
former chapter. They have been accustomed, it may 
be, to express themselves, both at the board and in 
other recitations, in so vague and indefinite a manner, 
as to pay little or no attention to the size, form, position 
and arrangement of the figures and lines; and hence 
it is not an uncommon thing to see pictures like the 
following, upon the board during recitation. 



120 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 








/J 5) *£. 



Perhaps some teachers will recognize the above pict- 
ure as a familiar acquaintance; for it is but a fair 
transcript of what may be seen upon blackboards in 
all parts of the country; and it is a fair inference to 
suppose that it presents a very just view of the state 
of the mental discipline of the children who formed it. 
Now how long will it require a child to lose himself 
and become discouraged in working an example after 
this fashion? I presume it would not be too much to 
say that nine-tenths of the mistakes and failures which 
occur at the board, find their origin, either immedi- 
ately or remotely, in some such indefiniteness as the 
foregoing exhibits. How long a time will it require 
to acquire clear and definite ideas upon grammar and 
the use of language ; upon the geography of his coun- 
try ; or, in a word, to acquire a fund of knowledge 



RECITATION. 



121 



that will be permanently serviceable to him, if he is 
thus indefinite in all his recitations? It is true, this 
general "mixing up" and vagueness of expression 
might, in time, wear itself down to something like an 
understandable shape ; but it is the object of educa- 
tion, and especially of recitation, to save this time, and 
to correct and refine, to trim and prune this misshapen 
mass, just as specifically as it is the business of the 
gardener to trim and prune, to bend and straiten, the 
crooked, gnarled and unsightly branches of the tree. 
Instead, therefore, of the suspicious-looking charac- 
ters in the foregoing examples, and the glaring want 
of order and precision in the arrangement of them, the 
following will in all respects be preferable. 

o$$p $7 $' 

074$$ 









Now the child will take a thousand times as much 
interest and pleasure in these examples, because they 
are more beautiful and more orderly. 

Section 3— Comprehensiveness. — Every recitation, 
definition, rule and application should be rendered as 
comprehensive as possible, both with reference to a 
clear and explicit understanding of the matter, and in 
making it as specific as possible. This part of teach- 
ing is too much neglected. Teachers are too easily 
satisfied with the mere repetition of words, or with the 
bare recitation, without giving it a sensible or life-like 
11 



122 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

turn, without making it comprehend the business 
transactions or apply to the life-duties and the reali- 
ties to which the lessons frequently refer. Hence it 
is not difficult to find those among pupils (I will not 
say among teachers) who, though they have " ciphered 
through the book," yet do not possess a dozen clear 
and well-defined ideas upon arithmetic: or those who, 
though they have "said all the grammar in the book," 
yet are incapable of writing or speaking without 
making the most ridiculous blunders. 

Again: there arc those who, though they may be 
able to answer all the questions printed in their geog- 
raphies, are nevertheless profoundly ignorant of dis- 
tance and direction in general, or the relative position 
of places on the globe. When, for the sake of test- 
ing their comprehension of local geography, I have 
requested them to point toward the different places 
and things about which they were reciting, such, for 
instance, as Spain, Iceland or California; the Andes, 
Alps or Alleghany mountains; to Constantinople, 
Cincinnati or St. Petersburg; or to places, lakes and 
rivers in the more immediate vicinity; almost all im- 
aginable directions have been given ; some up, some 
down, some to the right and some to the left, repre- 
senting nearly all the points of the compass for one 
single place. In a very few instances, indeed, has 
there been any thing like correctness or uniformity ; 
showing a most lamentable deficiency in comprehen- 
sion. Their ideas of geography bad not been local- 
ized. They had learned the answers to the questions, 
which in itself, is all well enough, but they had not 
got beyond that. Their ideas were of books and maps 
and not of the earth; and when they thought of these 
pi aces (or their names rather) they at once called to 



RECITATION. 123 

mind the book, and their position and appearance 
there. One boy, and one of my own teaching too, 
contended stoutly with me, that the w T aters of the St. 
Lawrence ran toward the south-west, since, as he 
affirmed, the w T ater could not run up hill — as he sup- 
posed from the position of the map upon the wall, 
from which he had obtained much of his geographical 
knowledge, would be the case, if they ran toward the 
north-east. Others again have told me that Indiana 
is red: Ohio, yellow; Kentucky, green; and Pennsyl- 
vania, blue ; that the rivers and lines representing 
boundary are black, since these things are so repre- 
sented upon the map. Sometimes, on my asking these 
simple questions on local geography, there would be a 
vacant stare, or a half-suppressed laugh, as much as 
to say, " Why, that question is not in the lesson or 
book." 

Teachers, therefore, can not be too careful to local- 
ize, or transfer the ideas from the book to the things 
intended. In geography, for instance, in speaking of 
mountains, instead of confining the mind solely to the 
dark or light spots upon the map, the pupils should 
be carried in imagination to the base, or plain below. 
They then should cast their eyes up along the sides 
to the hight of two or three very tall trees (if the 
children live in the country), or church steeples (if 
they live in cities), to the jutting rocks or cliffs that 
hang ready to tumble from the side : then to a bright 
cascade glittering in the sunshine a half mile higher 
up the side; then to the forests of evergreens that 
skirt the sides beyond, and last of all to the towering 
peak that lifts its head above all these, and against 
which the clouds strike and crumble to pieces as they 
pass along; or if the subject is a river, instead of con- 



1*24 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

fining their minds to the dark lines upon the map, ex- 
clusively, let them see the banks, low and marshy, 
beautiful and fertile, or high and rocky, and the farms 
and foliage in the distance; if a state or country, in- 
stead of the various and variegated colors upon the 
map, they should behold the hills and valleys, the 
plains and forests, farms, grainfields and meadows, 
houses and barns, roads, cities and villages, and every 
thing, in fact, that belongs to local geography. A 
similar course may be pursued with the other sciences. 

Section 4 — Independence. — Again; the child should 
be taught to manifest a due degree of independence in 
recitation. There are, however, two extremes here, 
and chiefly attributable to the practice of the teacher. 
We shall endeavor to guard him against both. The 
one is a blind adherence to books and customs, and a 
cowardly or indolent dependence, which forbids every 
attempt to think for one's self: the other is an ego- 
tistic assurance, or self-conceited effrontery that sets_ 
aside all books and definitions. It is a disposition and 
a habit some teachers fall into, of finding fault with 
authors, and every body else whose opinions do not 
agree with their own. They seem to think it a mark 
of wisdom to quarrel with definitions and rules. They 
build up their reputation with the bones of their 
demolished (?) adversaries ; and often build upon their 
follies and weaknesses. They live by plunder. They 
are wiseacres. They are continually making dis- 
coveries, that others have made long before them, but 
which their better judgment led them to see were no 
discoveries. They can see but one side of an argu- 
ment, and that is their side, and unfortunately it is too 
frequently the wrong side. Such, for example, are 



RECITATION. 125 

those who must live by excitement, always inventing 
some new thing, and straining to make the world 
believe that everything has been going wrong until 
they happened to be born. They do not spend their 
time and energies so much in teaching the sciences, 
as in finding fault with them, and hence weaken the 
confidence of the scholar that needs strengthening; 
unbend the energies that need stimulating ; and un- 
settle and distract the purposes and knowledge that 
may have been half formed. 

The other extreme is scarcely less detrimental to 
true progress, but not so dangerous. The one is 
absolute destruction, the other is simply a barrier. 
While the first cuts loose from all mooring, carries no 
anchor and ignores all faith, save what its own dog- 
matism invents ; the other remains bound fast to the 
ancient customs, and dares not believe and practice 
anything that does not conform to the creed. The 
one is rabid radicalism ; the other is rank conservatism. 
The one is meteoric or gaseous; the other is fossilifer- 
ous. Both are destructive to healthy growth of mind. 

The effects of either of these extremes upon the 
pupil can easily be imagined. They either become 
pedantic, self-conceited and opinionated, or obsequious, 
stupid and parasitical. But there is a happy mean 
between the two extremes, and that the teacher should 
endeavor to follow. While I would not recommend 
a blind subserviency to the old usages, and to texts 
and definitions as laid down by authors ; yet I would 
say, agree with authors just as far as possible, lest your 
distrust and skepticism lead those who have less 
judgment, too far from a settled belief; and lest you 
distract the interest and attention so necessary to 
progress. 



126 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

There is still another feature of independence worthy 
of consideration in this connection. It aims to correct 
a prevailing practice, among teachers, which, for evil 
results has scarcely a parallel. We speak of the 
practice of rendering undue assistance, or of prompt- 
ing the scholar during recitation. This evil is so 
general and has so many slightly different phases, that 
it will be almost impossible to guard against all of 
them in the short space allotted here. 

The case of pupils' prompting each other, in recita- 
tion, prevails in many schools to a very great extent. 
And what renders it still worse, it is winked at by 
many teachers, or at least no very vigorous attempts 
are made to break it up. Now I can hardly conceive 
of a greater insult, except open violence itself, a pupil 
could offer a teacher or fellow pupil than if, when a 
question is asked, he should clandestinely commu- 
nicate the answer to the pupil about to recite. To 
say nothing about its criminality, as a species of 
falsehood, the effects upon the progress of the pupil 
upon which it is practiced, is most ruinous. I have 
known several instances where pupils have been dis- 
graced by this vice, to such an extent that they had 
lost all confidence in themselves, and they were con- 
tent seemingly to remain in this state of abject ser- 
vility. I have known others again, who had practiced 
" telling in class" so long, that it seemed almost an 
impossibility to break them of it. I know of no 
remedies other than those used to prevent other crimes 
of. like magnitude. 

But the worst form of this vice is exhibited, when 
the teacher himself descends to it. It then becomes 
as it were, a public pest, and it is as if all barriers 
to laziness and deception had been thrown down. It 



RECITATION. 1 - 



is usually practiced by the use of what are called 
leading questions, which may be classified in the follow- 
ing manner. 1. By asking questions in such a form 
as only to require the assent or dissent of the pupil. 
2. By arranging the questions in such a manner as to 
make them embrace all the answer except the last few 
words, that maybe readily inferred from the preced- 
ing. 3. By suggesting the answer either by a sig- 
nificant word, tone of voice, look or gesture. 4. By 
open assistance, or preventing the pupil by untimely 
assistance. All these forms have a tendency to weak- 
en or destroy independence in thought and study, as 
well as in recitation. They can be best illustrated by 
giving examples in each. 

Suppose, for example, that a class in arithmetic is 
called upon to recite, when the following dialogue 
takes place — 

Teacher. You can not add fractions that have not 
a common denominator, can you ? 

Pupil. No, sir. 

T. Well, when you wish to add fractions of this 
kind, they must be reduced to a common denominator, 
must they not? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Very well ! Now to reduce fractions to a com- 
mon denominator, you must multiply all the denom- 
inators together for a new denominator, must you not? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Well then ; to find the several numerators, 
don't you have to multiply each one by the product 
of all the denominators, except its own? 

P. Yes, sir. » 

T. Then, to add, you must find the sum of these, 
must you not? 



128 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. And then yon place the common denominator 
under this sum, do you not ? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Then, if the resulting fraction is an improper 
fraction, it may be reduced to a whole or mixed 
number, may it not? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Very well I (flatteringly), and all parties seem 
well satisfied with their progress — the teacher in ex- 
hibiting his knowledge, and the pupil in saying Yes. 
sir: for any one can see that the teacher did what 
leciting was done, only asking the assent or dissent 
of the pupil, as he advanced, which, of course, was 
readily granted. 

2. The second variety of prompting, or that in 
which the questions are so arranged, as to embrace all 
the answer, except the last few words which are sug- 
gested by the preceding, or "answers made easy," 
may be described in the following manner. Take an 
example of a recitation in Grammar. 

Teacher. The part of English Grammar which treats 
of the modification, inflection, composition and classi- 
fication of words, is called what ? 

Pupil. Etymology. 

T. That part which treats of the agreement and 
government of words, and their arrangement in sen- 
tences, is called what ? 

P. Syntax. 

T. When words denote objects — or the names of 
all persons, places or things, they are called what? 

P, Nouns. 

T. Nouns are classified into two general divisions 



RECITATION. lli ( .» 

or classes, the one including all general or common 
names, the other all particular or proper names : now, 
what are these called ? 

P. Common and proper. 

T. Very well : now that property of the noun, 
which is used to distinguish the sexes, is called what? 

P. Gender. 

T. When the word denotes a male, what gender 
is it? 

P. Masculine. (So of all the genders.) 

T. That property of nouns and pronouns, used to 
distinguish the person speaking, from the person or 
thing spoken to or spoken of, is called what ? 

P. Person. 

T. There are three persons used in English Gram- 
mar; the first denotes the person or thing speaking; 
the second, the person or thing spoken to; the third, 
the person or thing spoken of: now, what are they 
called ? 

P. First, second and third (so of the definitions of 
the several persons). 

T. That property of the noun and pronoun, used to 
show their relations to other words in a sentence, is 
called what ? 

P. Case. 

T. When the noun or pronoun is used as the sub- 
ject of a proposition, or as the agent, actor or doer of 
a thing, in what case is it? 

P. Nominative case. (So of all the cases, etc.) 

The faults alluded to above, are much aggravated 
if the questions are printed in the text book. The 
pupils may in this case be hunting up the answers 
while the teacher is reading the questions. This they 
have a fair opportunity to do, since the answers are 



130 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 



so much shorter than the questions. This mode, how- 
ever, is less objectionable than the first, in one or two 
respects, since it does graciously grant the pupil the 
privilege of slight variations. He is not obliged to 
say, " Yes, sir," all the time; but may make his selec- 
tions, and guesses from at least a dozen words. But 
it is more general in its use ; and hence, in the main 
more baneful than the other. The first is so glaring 
in its absurdness, that it would seem, no one would 
practice it. Yet it is not difficult to find cases in our 
schools precisely parallel; and then it has almost all 
possible shades and degrees of inconsistency ranging 
from this extreme, until we scarcely find a trace of it, 
or merging into some other practice equally reprehen- 
sible. We find the other in some of its forms and 
modifications, in nearly all the schools. But it will 
be seen at once, that it virtually deprives the pupil of 
the benefits of the recitation. He acquires none of 
that discipline in thought and style which is contem- 
plated in the objects of study and recitation. He is 
put upon the stand as a mere piece of furniture. His 
principal business is to give mechanical responses. In 
this respect he resembles the piano at his side. He is 
for the benefit of the player, or for the teacher to 
exhibit his skill upon, in asking and answering ques- 
tions. It is just so much answer for so much ques- 
tion; and when the teacher ceases playing his ques- 
tions upon him, he is as quiet, so far as recitation is 
concerned, as the dumb piano. The teacher himself 
is on exhibition, in such recitations as these, and he 
only uses his scholars as instruments to aid him in 
making a display : and for all practical purposes, they 
might almost as well be so many posts or pegs. 

3. The third case, or that in which the answer is 



RECITATICN. 131 

suggested by peculiar arrangement, significant word, 
tone of voice, look or gesture, is one of most frequent 
occurrence; and like the others, it may enter every 
grade of recitation. It is more difficult of description, 
however, since the tones of the voice, gesticulation 
and manner can not be represented to advantage, 
upon paper. Suppose, however, we have a recitation 
in geography. 

Teacher. Is the earth a ilat plain, or is it round 
like a ball? 

Pupil. It is round. 

T. Is there more land or water on the surface ? 

P. Water. 

T. Is there more land south or north of the equa- 
tor? 

P. North. 

T. Are the Balkan mountains in Australia or 
Turkey ? 

P. In Turkey. 

T. Is the surface hilly or level in New England ? 

P. Hilly. 

T. Does the Rio Grande flow into the Pacific Ocean 
or the Gulf of Mexico? 

P. Into the Gulf of Mexico. 

T. Is the temperature in the frigid zones higher 
or lower than it is in the torrid? 

P. Lower. 

T. Where is the Colorado river, in Maine or 
Mexico ? 

P. In Mexico. (?) 

Or suppose the lesson is in arithmetic. 

T. To multiply a ratio, must you multiply the 
antecedent or consequent ? 

P. The consequent. 



132 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

T. If in a proportion, the answer ought to be 
greater than the third term, do you place the greater 
of the two remaining terms in the tirst or second 
place? 

P. In the second place. 

T. To reduce fractions to their lowest terms, do 
you multiply or divide those terms ? 

P. Divide them. Etc. 

It will be seen that this mode is subject to all the 
objections of the second one, with an additional one, 
viz. : that of offering a choice between two answers, 
and that choice always determined either by the posi- 
tion of some important word, or the tone of voice in 
which it is pronounced. But its worst form consists 
in look or gesture. 

Suppose a class to be reciting, and a question like 
the following is asked : 

Teacher. Where does the Mississippi river rise, 
which way does it run, and into what does it flow? 

Pupil. " It rises hi the northern part of the United 
States, and" — (hesitates). T. "In what lake com- 
mencing with ? " (pointing to his eye). P. " In lake 
Itaska, and runs" — (hesitates and looks at the teacher, 
who makes a mistake and points the wrong way) — 
"north." T. "How?" (correcting himself). P. 
"South." T. "Well, into what does it flow?" P. 
"And flows into" — (hesitates) — T. "Into what 
gulf? " P. " Into the Gulf of St.— (hesitates and looks 
at the teacher, who shakes his head) "California!" 
T. "Where?" P. "Mexico?" T. "Yes! very 
well ! " And other questions are disposed of in a 
similar manner. 

Take a lesson in parsing. Example : " Careless 
girls soil their books." 



RECITATION. 133 



Pupil. "Careless is a verb." T. "No." (Pupil 
looks desponding, evidently waiting to be told). 

T "What part of speech is it that expressed 
quality ? " P. " Oh, the adverb ! " T. " No, that mo- 
difies the verb," etc. P. "Well then (inquiringly), an 
adjective?" T. "That is it!" (flatteringly): "Now 
go on ; " and he does go on in the same halting, half- 
guessing, half indifferent manner to the close of the 
sentence, when he knows but little more than he did 
before he commenced. 

The practice that, pupils sometimes fall into of 
closing each answer with the rising slide, or as if 
they asked the teacher if it were not so, is one falling 
under this head, and should be carefully guarded. 
This might be called the guessing process, since the 
scholar by a shrewd bantering way manages to guess 
his way along, and to call the answer out of the 
teacher. For instance, a child commences a definition, 
rule or explanation, and progresses until he arrives at 
a point where he is not quite certain. He hesitates, 
and glances at the teacher, who is also watching and 
ready to respond. He proceeds cautiously, and per- 
haps makes about a half mistake, when a shake of the 
head, a knowing, significant look or wink from the 
teacher, arrests him, and he quickly changes and 
glides off in an opposite direction ; or after hesi- 
tating and telegraphing the teacher, to know whether 
he is right or wrong, upon receiving an affirmative 
reply, by nod, wink or any other sign, he moves or., 
assured that all is safe. 

Suppose, for example, that the class is spelling 
orally. The teacher pronounces the word "indepen- 
dent." The pupil spells " in-de-pend-a " (The 

teacher looks the knowing look), "ent"is quickly 



134 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

pronounced by the pupil. Teacher. "Ceremonial.' 7 
Pupil "Se"— T. "How?" "Cer-i"— T. "Cere- 
monial, not Cerimonial " (accenting and rendering long 
the second syllable). P. "Cer-e-mo-n" — (hesitates 
and looks inquiringly at the teacher), " e " — (slight 
shake of the teacher's head), "i" (an approving look 
and nod), "Ceremoni-el." T. "How?" P. "al,— Cere- 
monial." T. " That's right ; " and another word is 
guessed through in a similar manner. Now who 
spelled these words, the scholar or the teacher ? The 
teacher, of course ; and he might, with a great deal 
more propriety, have told the pupil in plain, unequivocal 
terms : and the latter might, with a great deal more 
honesty, have asked the teacher in a plain, frank man- 
ner, for the answer, than for both of them to deceive 
each other. 

4. There is still another bad practice that deserves 
notice here. It is that of telling the pupil outright as 
soon as he hesitates, or before he has time to answer 
This practice prevails to the greatest extent in read- 
ing, though it extends to all other branches. It will 
be readily recognized in the first by a reference to a 
common practice with young beginners. Some teach- 
ers are in the habit, as soon as a child hesitates upon 
a word or sentence, to pronounce it for him at once. 
I have seen whole recitations conducted in that way, 
the teacher pronouncing at least three-fourths of the 
words, and the child drawling them out after him ; 
after which both would seem satisfied, the child that 
he had said his lesson, and the teacher that he had 
said it to him. But the practice is carried into other 
branches. We shall give but one illustration. 

I remember listening once to a recitation from a 
class (or teacher rather), in what was called a Hi^h 



RECITATION. loD 

School. The lesson was in Physiology, and on those 
most interesting topics, "Digestion and Circulation." 
The teacher commenced by asking the questions from 
the book; and having a good verbal memory, a ready 
tongue and more self-conceit than judgment, he, in 
almost every instance, before the pupil had time to 
respond, would commence telling him the answer, 
sometimes graciously condescending to ask the pupil 
at the close if it was not so. And though the lesson 
lasted over half an hour, I am sure there was not a 
half-dozen questions answered by the pupils without 
an interruption from the teacher; and at least five 
sixths of them were answered by him alone. A few 
of the pupils, judging from appearance, had prepared 
the lesson with the evident intention of having the 
pleasure of reciting it. To them his ofnciousness 
seemed annoying; for, when the question was asked, 
and they were about to respond, and when the 
teacher, either fearing lest some one might suspect 
his knowledge, or wishing to astonish some one with 
it, would strike in and crowd them off, there were 
evident manifestations of disappointment. Others, 
less sensitive, seemed to take it patiently, probably 
from greater respect for the wisdom and learning of 
the teacher, or possibly because it was a very easy 
way of reciting the lesson. Now, this case is by no 
means an exception ; others could have been selected 
equally faulty. 

Again : the habit that some pupils have of waiting in 
recitation until they receive "a start" from the teacher, 
falls properly under this head, as the practice is most 
probably induced by the failings last alluded to. A dis- 
tinguished educator in Ohio, in speaking of this class 
of pupils, compares them to an old rickety pump, into 



136 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

which a few pailfuls of water must be poured before 
any can be pumped out, which, when obtained, is but 
a sickly stream ; and as soon as the pumping ceases, 
the connection is broken, and all efforts to obtain more 
are fruitless, until more water is introduced from 
above. The comparison is a good one, since the abil- 
ity of these pupils to recite seems to depend almost 
entirely upon the extraneous eiforts of the teacher. 

Now, all these forms of prompting exist, and per- 
haps many more slightly different. Their deleterious 
Consequences may be readily seen. Some of them 
pander to the laziness of the pupils, some to their 
pride. Some cultivate deceit and falsehood, some 
superficial habits. Some, again, are absolutely annoy- 
ing and even insulting, while the whole brood are 
destructive of manly independence and progress. The 
remedy for all these forms of evil is short and simple, 
and perhaps has been anticipated already. 

1. For the first, in asking questions, avoid, so far as 
possible, all that admit of the answers, Yes or No. Let 
them be put in such a shape that the pupil shall have 
the entire benefit of the answer. This is his by right ; 
and he just as certainly languishes without it, as the 
tender plants do without the showers. Take the first 
example, for instance, under the first case. Instead of 
the labored and childish repetition there exhibited, 
the question should stand simply thus : " How do you 
add fractions that have not a common denominator ? " 
And the answer should follow without a single word 
from the teacher, until the pupil has done with it; 
then, if it become necessary, let explanations and illus- 
trations follow. For beginners, or those less familiar 
with the subject, it might be staked off something 
after this manner: 



RECITATION. 



137 



First Step. The reduction or changing of the terms. 
This consists of two operations : 1. Those relating to 
the denominator; 2. Those relating to the numerator. 

Second Step. The addition of the numerators. 

Third Step. The disposition of the denominator. 

Fourth Step. The reduction of the fraction, should 

it be necessary. 

2. As to the second case of prompting: in asking 
questions, let them be as brief and pointed as possible, 
neither offering nor denying a choice of words, and 
conveying no allusion whatever to the answer. Take 
the example given under the second variety of prompt- 
ing. Instead of the strained effort to make the an- 
swers as short and easy as possible, let it stand simply 
thus : " What is Etymology ? " " What is Syntax ? " 
"What are nouns?" "Name the different classes,and 
define them." "Name the properties of nouns, and 
define them," etc. 

3. As to the third case: after the question is asked 
so as not to allow the child to choose between two 
things, let the teacher mind his own business until the 
child has answered, or at least made an effort to an- 
swer it— I e., let him not, by word, tone of voice, look 
or gesture, convey any knowledge to the pupil as to 
whether he is right or wrong until he has either fin- 
ished the entire answer or failed ; in which latter case 
it may either be corrected by the teacher— though this 
should be rare— or passed to another pupil, and when 
answered, should be returned to the one making the 
first mistake for his answer as corrected, and so of 
all the others. Take the first question under the third 
case. Instead of what is there stated, let it stand 
thus: "What is the shape of the earth?" etc. Take 
the one on proportion. Let it stand thus : " State the 

12 



138 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

rule for proportion : 1. When the answer ought to he 
greater than the third term ; 2. When it ought to be 
less, and the reasons for," etc. For the other form of 
this variety, take the question given under it, viz. : 
" Where does the Mississippi rise ? " etc., which is a 
proper enough form for the question, the difficulty here 
lying in the mode of answer. Let the answer be given 
without any intervening questions or suggestions, either 
by word or by act. And in cases like that given in 
analysis or parsing, let there be no guessing, no "draw- 
ing out," no hesitating for suggestion from either 
teacher or pupil, no rising slides on the part of the 
pupil, no suggestions, no winking, nodding or negating, 
to indicate to the pupil whether he is right or wrong. 
4. In reading, and in all other recitations, avoid 
the practice of assisting the pupil whenever he hesi- 
tates upon the pronunciation of a word, or the utter- 
ance of a sentence, making it a positive injunction 
that the lesson is to be so well prepared before recita- 
tion, that, especially in reading, all the words can be 
named at sight; for if they can not, the child should 
be remanded at once to easier lessons, even to the 
" cards " or word and object lessons, until he acquires 
the ability to pronounce readily. It accomplishes 
little or no good, for a pupil to drag his slow length 
along in reading, where not only the meaning of the 
words, but their connection is lost by his long inter- 
vals or pauses. Again : avoid the practice of show- 
ing the pupil how well you can recite yourself, at 
least until he has had the first trial, which by right 
and duty belongs to him. This practice is so annoy- 
ing, it would seem that no one who had witnessed its 
evil effects would ever tolerate it, much less resort to it. 
In addition to the annoyance, it discourages all effort 



RECITATION. x JtJ 



on the part of those who desire to learn, and pampers 
the laziness of those who have not the desire. The 
elocution exercises may form an exception to this rule. 
Lastly : the practice of assisting pupils to the brst 
few words of the answer, is doubtless the offspring ot 
the last mentioned evil. To correct it, never allow 
yourself to be guilty of the practice yourself, and never 
allow your pupils to presume upon your ^ulgence 
in this respect. The understanding should be, that 
the first word is just as important for the _ pupil to 
learn, as the second or third ; and that the integrity 
as well as the usefulness of knowledge, will be much 
impaired, if it is based upon as uncertain a process, 
as that described under this head. 

Article IV— Specific Methods. 
It only remains now to speak of the several modes 
of recitation, in which an application of these specific 
directions may be made. For convenience, they may 
be classified as follows : 

I. The Interrogative Method. . 
II. The Topical Method. 
III. The Didactic Method. 

The first is one of almost universal use, and the one 
in which most, if not all the directions given above, 
will apply. We shall speak of it under the several 
forms in which the answers are given. 

Section 1— The Concert Method, or that in which 
all recite at once, is one in general use, and is not with- 
out its uses and abuses. 1. It is useful in awakening 
an interest in class and in school. 2. It aids those who 
may be too timid otherwise to recite, to overcome their 
diffidence. 3. It gives all an opportunity to recite the 



140 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

whole, or a greater part of the lesson, in the same 
time. 4. It offers the best opportunity to secure uni- 
formity, and to cultivate the voice; and it shows a 
school off to better advantage : though, whether this 
last is really a desirable object, will depend altogether 
upon the style of exhibition. If the object of thb 
show is to secure answers to the greatest number of 
questions, without any reference to where they come 
from, it would then be objectionable. If, however, 
the display consists in better-drilled voices, greater 
uniformity, and more promptness in manner, etc., all 
of which may be secured by this method, then it be- 
comes a decided advantage. The chief benefits of 
this method, however, are confined to reading and 
spelling, which have been described elsewhere ; but 
it may be used to advantage in reciting rules and 
tables of currency, weight, measure, and in accurately 
arranged definitions, and in the. declensions and con- 
jugations of words. 

Some of the more important abuses of this method > 
are the following: I. It offers an opportunity to any 
that do not know the lesson very well, to attach them- 
selves, as it were, to those that do, and thereby appear 
to a better advantage than they really deserve. 2. It 
affords an opportunity to those who may desire to 
conceal mistakes, intentional deviations and ignorance, 
to effect their purposes; though an experienced ear 
will generally detect any thing of this kind. 3. Un- 
less carefully guarded, it has a tendency to cultivate 
an unnatural and monotonous style. 4. Those who 
have been in the habit of reciting too exclusively in 
concert, are for the most part, unable to recite alone. 
They do not acquire the strength and confidence, to 
enable them to stand without the " props and stays " 



RECITATION. 141 

of other voices. Therefore, while this method pos- 
sesses unquestionable merits, and many advantages, 
it should be used with great caution, never exclusively, 
and never to usurp the place of other forms. 

Section 2 — Consecutive Method. — This method is 
one of long standing and perhaps of universal adop- 
tion. It is that in which the members of the class 
are so arranged that the questions or exercises uni- 
formly commence at a given place in class, and pass 
on in consecutive order, from head to foot. This plan 
is not without its merits and demerits. 

1. The labor of conducting recitations after this 
mode, is less than in most others, the teacher having 
no other special care than merely to ask the questions, 
and to see that they are answered properly. 

2. It has the advantage of order and system ; and 
for advanced pupils, or those who can resist the 
temptation of inattention, may be used with safety. 

3. It affords an opportunity for pupils to compete 
for position — if indeed this is an advantage; and we 
think it may become useful under proper restrictions. 

But the objections to this method, when used with 
a certain class of students, and without great care, 
will more than overbalance the benefits arising out 
of it. 

1. It affords an opportunity for the pupil to neglect 
certain portions of the lesson. They will prepare only 
such portions of it as will most likely fall to them to 
recite. Hence, it is no uncommon thing to see pupils, 
eve a after arranging themselves in class — if they are 
allowed their books in recitation— first ascertaining 
their location in class, then measuring off a place 
in the lesson corresponding to it, and then commenc- 



142 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

ing a vigorous preparation of that part of the les- 
son, paying little or no attention to any other part. 

2. If this custom alone is adopted, after a pupil has 
once recited, he is apt to feel no further responsibility; 
and for all practical purposes, might almost as well be 
excused from the class, after he has " said " his part 
of the lesson. 

3. In large classes, where a fixed arrangement is 
observed, there is danger of slighting some altogether, 
and hence of inducing them to slight their lessons 
until such time when they will be most likely to be 
called upon for recitation. 

It was the misfortune of the writer once to be a 
member of such a class of about 50 members, arrang- 
ed in alphabetical order. The lessons were of such a 
character, that it was not absolutely necessary that 
more than about half a dozen pupils should recite at 
one recitation — and that was about the average num- 
ber — so that each one of us had the privilege of re-, 
citing as often as about once in ten days. And I 
well remember the demonstrations that were made by 
some of the class after passing the ordeal of "their 
turn." The book would be thrown aside with the ex- 
clamation, "There, I shall have nothing more to 
do this week, sure!" One can easily see that the 
knowledge and discipline obtained in this way, are 
worthless. 

Section 3.— The Promiscuous Method is one which, 
perhaps, has more merits than either of those just 
described. It consists, as its name implies, in asking 
questions of any member of the class, irrespective of 
time, place or order. It has these advantages : 

1. It compels all to get the whole lesson, since no 



RECITATION. 143 

one can know bow much he will be called upon to 
recite, or when or where. 

2. It checks any disposition on the part of the pupil 
to be inattentive, since each one is liable, at any mo- 
ment, to be called upon to recite. 

3. It forces all to keep in mind the connection ; for, 
where the method is properly followed, the teacher 
may, at any time, and at any stage of the answer, ar- 
rest it, and require some one else to complete it. 

4. It acts as a kind of a check upon most of the 
evils described in the foregoing. 

It has, however, the following objections, if not 
properly administered. 

1. When the pupil, after having been once called 
upon, feels sure he will not be called upon again, he is 
tempted to inattention in the remainder of the lesson. 
In this it is similar to the second method, only in that 
the inattention may occur both before and after being 
called upon; while in this, only after, since the pupil is 
obliged to keep a sharp w T atch for his turn. But even 
this abuse can be obviated by taking advantage of 
such pupils, and calling upon them three or four times 
in succession, in the same recitation. 

2. It requires more care on the part of the teacher, 
in order to distribute the lesson rightly among the 
members of the class. But this can hardly be called 
an objection, since the benefits thence arising, will 
more than compensate for any additional care. On 
the whole, this variety of the Interrogative method, in 
its many applications, and with proper care, is subject 
to fewer objections than almost any other. 

Section 4 — The Silent Method. — Another variety 
closely allied to this last, deserves special notice. Foi 



144 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

the sake of distinction we shall call it the Silent Method. 
It is described thus : The question is asked the whole 
class, and all are required to answer mentally or silently 
— not merely to call to mind the answers, or to think of 
the conclusions, but to examine carefully the processes 
by which they are reached; and when this is done, to 
indicate it by a given signal. When all the members 
have thus signaled, or after the lapse of a reasonable 
time, let some one of the pupils be selected to give the 
oral or written answer, or solution. 

This method is thus described : The question is an- 
nounced distinctly to the whole class. The time elaps- 
ing between the asking and answering should resemble 
that which usually occurs between the flash of the 
lightning and the report of the thunder. It should 
be impressively still. This gives every one time, not 
only to get the full import of every question, but 
really to answer every one mentally, and then to re- 
view it, when the oral answer is given, which, if cor- 
rect, may be indicated by the pupils' assuming the 
proper posture; but if incorrect, and as soon as incor- 
rect, the signal should be repeated, when the one recit- 
ing is arrested in his answer, and another called upon 
to complete it, etc. 

This plan brings more minds into active and vigor- 
ous exercise than almost any other. No one can really 
escape, since in case of a failure, the plan itself reports 
the delinquent ; and if false reports are given, they may 
soon be detected by the teacher. If he have suspicions 
of this nature, let him require the pupil thus sus- 
pected to recite ; and a few exposures will generally 
cure the worst cases of this species of falsifying. The 
only objection that really operates against this variety, 
is that it requires a little longer time. But the addi- 



RECITATION 1 45 

tional discipline, in most cases, will more than com- 
pensate for any loss of this kind. It requires also a 
considerable previous culture and discipline to make 
it work well ; but it may then be used in nearly all 
kinds of recitation. 

Sec. 5 — The Monitorial Method. — Another variety 
called the Monitorial, has been adopted by a few with 
success ; though the experience of the best teachers, I 
believe, has condemned its general use. The only in- 
stance in which I remember to have seen it employed 
with any marked success, was in the Model Depart- 
ment of the Connecticut State Normal School ; and 
in this case it was not strictly monitorial. A class of 
about twenty girls was reciting in history. One of 
their number (the monitress) sat upon an elevated seat, 
immediately in front of the class, holding in her hand 
a set of cards, numbered and corresponding with du- 
plicates held, one by each member of the class. As 
the teacher asked the questions, the monitress drew a 
card from her pack, not knowing herself what one, 
called out the- number to the class, and the pupil hold- 
ing its duplicate, arose and recited. The teacher, in 
this instance, did nothing but simply ask the questions. 
The class was responsible for the balance, even the cor- 
rection of any errors that were committed. There are 
other forms of this variety differing slightly from any 
hitherto described ; one of which, by way of distinction, 
we shall call reciprocal. It is nearly monitorial, only 
every member of the class is a monitor, at the same time 
all are pupils. The peculiarities of this variety con- 
sist in placing the whole recitation in the hands of the 
pupils, each one, according to pre-arrangement, asking 
such questions as come within the scope of the lesson 
IS 



146 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

or review, and to whatever member of the class he may 
choose. Sometimes there is connected with this", some 
incentive — such, for instance, as contesting for the 
head, in which case, the pupil standing anywhere in 
class — say No. 7 — may question any member abovo 
him, and in case he ask a question that can not be 
answered by the one of whom he asks it, on answer 
ing it himself, he takes his place. 

This plan is both amusing and instructive. The inter- 
est it awakens in class, and the incentives it adds to the 
preparation of the lesson are surprising; since it must 
be learned not only to be recited well, but so well that 
the pupils themselves may teach it. This plan but 
slightly modified, works well in performing operations 
at the board, especially in the simple operations in 
arithmetic where long columns of figures are to be 
added, or in any others, where practice and rapidity 
are required. Let the pupils contend in a similar 
manner, or simply take turns in performing rapidly 
various parts of the operation. 

Section 6 — Miscellaneous Methods. — (a) One of 
these varieties, though somewhat limited in its applica- 
tion, is worthy of notice. For want of a better name, we 
shall call it a method by proxy. Its chief use is to cul- 
tivate ready and close attention, and it may be used 
occasionally, in nearly all the branches. It consists in 
a repetition and transfer of the question as it comes 
from the teacher, requiring answer in most cases from 
those least expecting it. For instance, the question 
is announced by the teacher, when the pupil to whom 
it is directed rises and repeats it to the class, and 
calls upon some one to answer it, who may also be 
required to repeat it, and if unable to answer, may 



RECITATION. 147 

call upon some one else, etc. This mode, of course, 
can never be rendered general, its chief use being to 
cultivate attention and the ability to ask and answer 
questions under a variety of circumstances. 

(b) The practice of reciting by contests, or better 
known as " choosing sides" though of somewhat an 
cient origin, has but few superiors. As a means of 
exciting p.nd sustaining attention, it has few if any 
equals. Many, doubtless, can yet remember the ex- 
citement that used to prevail at the spelling-matches, 
which in fact constituted about the only attractive 
feature belonging to the old usages. The same in- 
terest may invest almost all other branches of study, 
by only submitting them to the same influences. For 
instance, let the class choose sides to remain chosen 
for one, two, three or four weeks at a time. Let a 
careful record of the losses and gains of both sides, be 
kept by the teacher, or some one or two of the pupils, 
and reported to the class once a w T eek, or at the expi- 
ration of the time, if that be deemed best. There are 
many other modes of keeping tally, besides many 
other incentives that may be used with this plan. This 
practice also cultivates the power of criticism, since 
pupils criticise each other. It also enables the pupils 
to follow demonstrations or answers of any kind, ex- 
ercises them in the practice of asking and answering 
questions, all of which are of great utility to every 
one, and especially those who expect to teach. 

(c) The plan by written questions and answers is one that 
ought to be practiced more than it is, since many that 
can answer very well orally, are nevertheless incapable 
of doing so by writing. The questions, in this variety, 
may be written on the board or on slips of paper, and 



148 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

distributed, and answers prepared by the pupils. Of 
course, care should be taken to prevent communica- 
tions. In this manner, a great deal of time may be 
saved, since the teacher may be employed about some- 
thing else, while the class is preparing answers, etc. 

Section 7 — The Topical Method. — This method, 
for intrinsic merit, perhaps, has not a single equal in 
the whole list. It levels in one bold stroke nearly all 
the evils and inconveniences attached to the other va- 
rieties, and aims a death-blow to superficial habits of 
recitation, since it throws the whole responsibility 
upon the individual pupil. This is just precisely 
what is needed to make independent and self-reliant 
scholars. Its chief benefits, however, are confined to 
advanced classes. It also admits of several varieties, 
a few of which we shall name. 

(a) The mere announcement of the subject or topic, 
while reciting, is one. Instead of the enunciation of 
the whole question, as in the case of the preceding, 
the teacher simply assigns a topic — embracing more 
or less, to suit the capacity of the class — upon which 
the pupil is expected to recite. For instance, instead 
of saying, How do you multiply a fraction by a whole 
number? A whole number by a fraction? A frac- 
tion by a fraction? etc. The teacher simply says, or 
writes, " The multiplication of fractions ; " and the 
pupil proceeds, at once, to discuss the whole subject, 
naming and describing the several cases in their order. 
Instead of asking all the questions as in the example 
given in grammar, he simply says, "Etymology," 
" Syntax," " Noun," "Properties," "Relations," etc.; 
and each one of these topics is then taken up and dis- 



RECITATION. 149 

posed of, without further assistance from the teacher, 
except slight explanations, as they may be needed. 

In geography, where this plan is peculiarly appro- 
priate, in describing the mountains of Europe, for 
instance, instead of asking the position, altitude, name 
and other peculiarities of each range or spur, the 
topic would simply be, " Mountains of Europe ; " 
and so of the rivers. In describing the seas, lakes 
etc., it would be " Bodies of Water. " In describing 
a particular state or territory, the following list of 
topics might be suggestive enough. 1. Position, in 
reference to Latitude and Longitude ; 2. Boundary ; 
3. Area ; 4. Population ; 5. Bodies of water ; 6. Riv- 
ers ; 7. Surface, including mountains etc.; 8. Soil; 
9. Climate ; 10. Productions, including the three king- 
doms of nature, etc.; 11. Chief towns and Capitals; 
12. Employment ; 13. Education : 14. Internal im- 
provements ; 15. Curiosities, and any others that may 
be desirable. 

The following are some of the advantages. 1. The 
labor on the part of the teacher is less, while the advan- 
tages to the pupil are greater. 2. It presents a con- 
nected view of a subject. The knowledge thus ac- 
quired is available. 3. It strengthens memory and 
cultivates the powers of the understanding and judg- 
ment. 4. It cultivates good manners, and the powers 
of expression and description. It teaches to tell 
straight stories, and to describe accurately. 5. It cul- 
tivates independence, originality, completeness and 
comprehensiveness of thought and style. 6. It cor- 
rects nearly all the abuses incident to the other modes. 

The objections to it are few, weak and readily re- 
moved or prevented. 1. Its use is confined chiefly to 
pupils somewhat advanced, the Transition and Sub- 



150 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

jective. 2. It will require time to initiate pupils into 
this method, especially if the}' have, as Mr. Page says, 
been subject to the "Drawing-out and Pounding-in 
system. " 

(b), Another form or use of this method consists in 
the use of diagrams and analyses. This variety em- 
braces the practice of mapping out subjects, giving 
the generic terms and placing their specifics in order, 
giving, in many instances, the entire analysis, by a 
process of generalization; and it is questionable, 
whether any other practice is more useful to advanced 
pupils, or those who wish to teach. It is the very 
key to investigation of a higher order, since it ar- 
ranges the materials of knowledge and thought — the 
tools of progress — in such order, that they become 
available in further researches. 

The advantages of this variety are similar to others 
just described ; and the only objection I am able to 
urge against it, consists in its abuse. Some teachers, 
seeing its beauty and utility in a few things, foolishly 
attempt to apply it not only to all subjects, but to all 
grades of advancement ; while it is strictly a sub- 
jective process. And further, they multiply divisions 
and subdivisions to such an extent, as rattier to con- 
fuse and confound, than render intelligible the subjects 
to which they apply it. They should not only remem- 
ber that facts come before their philosophic arrange- 
ment, but that they confuse the mind, rather than 
enlighten and strengthen it, when they are presented 
in such masses. 

Section 8. — The Didactic or Lecturing Method 
has already been described. Its use in recitation is 
somewhat limited; though, for certain classes and 



RECITATION. 151 

certain purposes, it produces, when properly employed, 
most remarkable effects. There are two principal 
varieties, viz. : conversation and lectures. They are suf- 
ficiently explained elsewhere, to be comprehended 
without further description. 

Both these varieties, however, are subject to great 
abuse. The excessive talking and lecturing in which 
some teachers indulge, are alike ruinous to their own 
usefulness and the pupil's improvement. The teacher 
who makes the least ado, in conducting the exercises 
of the school, is the one who will, in the end, have 
accomplished the most for his pupils, provided he so 
dispose of these exercises, as to secure the greatest 
amount of thought and action, upon the part of 
pupils. 

But as this topic has been discussed elsewhere, we 
close this chapter by a brief reference to the impor- 
tance of every teacher's having a variety of methods, 
and that he study the philosophy of them, so that he 
may wisely apply them. Every one knows that the 
teacher who has but one plan, and that perhaps an 
old edition stereotyped, soon renders his subjects mo- 
notonous, wearies the patience of his pupils, and cir- 
cumscribes the limits of their progress. By the very 
necessities of the case, he can only reach a few, and 
call out but that limited amount of talent, for which 
his " plan " may be peculiarly fitted ; while he who 
has a variety, and that variety based upon philosoph- 
ical principles, may wisely suit his plans to every in- 
dividual case. 

We have therefore presented, under three general 
heads as generic, some twelve or fifteen varieties. But 
it will not be inferred, of course, that this exhausts 
the list. ; for, while it will be found that all the meth- 



152 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

ods and varieties here described, as well as others prac- 
ticed by the profession generally, are referable to some 
one of these methods, or some of their varieties; yet 
each one of these again admits of a great many slight 
modifications in the applications, which, of course, 
would be too tedious for description here. The teacher 
who acquaints himself with their nature and design, 
and also with the peculiar wants of his pupils, will 
find little difficulty in making his own applications of 
them. We have therefore avoided as much as pos- 
sible the multiplication of special modes, believing 
that the few given are not only distinct enough in 
their characteristics, but comprehensive enough to 
admit of all necessary changes, and to embrace all pos- 
sible varieties. 



154 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 



SYNOPSIS IV. 



GO 

H 

s 

p 

g i 

§^ 

i 
- 

C 


s 

o 



BUSINESS. 



Objects, etc. 



( Habita of neatness, c 
•s Punctuality. Time, 
v. Aid in other duties ai 



Habits of neatness, order, promptness 
Place. Manner 
and emergencies. 



r Change of classes. Communications. 
Requisites. X A written order of duties, etc. 
v. Close attention. Self-denial. 



/- Dispatch, without haste or confusion. 
Manner. J With a moderate degree of stillness. 
^ With scrupulous care and accuracy. 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 155 



CHAPTER IV. 

SCHOOL BUSINESS. 

The object of the present chapter shall be to show, 
in as brief a space as possible, some of the uses of the 
school life. It might be a question with some whether 
there is any necessity for such a topic in the " School- 
room Duties;" but, since there is a class of duties that 
do not really belong, either to study or to recitation ; and 
since, if they are not provided for, they are either con- 
stantly interrupting those exercises, or else neglected 
entirely, it therefore seems proper and right .that such 
a chapter be introduced. 

It is a fact well attested by the opinions of our wisest 
men, as well as by common observation, that school 
training, notwithstanding its many excellencies, falls 
short of meeting all the demands of education. It 
does not, in the great majority of cases, prepare the 
young for the duties, dangers, and responsibilities of 
life. Too many leave school with thoughtless, slovenly 
and disorderly habits, notwithstanding they may be 
mathematical, philosophical, learned in the knowledge 
of books. 

Now it is not proposed that the school should do 
every thing for the pupil, such as furnishing him with 
a trade, or employment, or even giving him a very 
large stock of practical knowledge. Indeed, this can 
not be expected; for nothing but the actual struggle 
with the life duties themselves will ever give that 
thorough preparation which these duties demand. But 



156 THE AET OF TEACHING. 

that the school duties might be rendered more effect- 
ive in this respect ; that they should become a kind 
of foreshadowing of these duties, and, bo far as pos- 
sible, the actual preparation, are conclusions inferable, 
both from their nature and design, as* well as from the 
lamentable deficiencies that exist in reference to such 
culture. That the education of the child and the 
man should be a life preparation for life's duties and 
destiny, is a truth that can not be too thoroughly in- 
culcated ; and that the school life should, so far as pos- 
sible, be an epitome of that world life upon which the 
child is soon to enter, is another truth of equal sig- 
nificance. We shall therefore treat the above named 
subject under the following heads : 

1. The objects or necessity for such an application 
of school duties. 

2. The requisites and -means for carrying it into effect. 

3. The mode of conducting this department of school 
duties. 

Article 1— Objects, etc. 

If it be true that the school-room does afford oppor- 
tunity for this life preparation, etc., then indeed does 
it follow, that its exercises should look to that one 
great object as a central and leading idea, about which, 
or rather to which, all others should bend; for it is 
scarcely possible, and by no means probable, that 
unless some special pains are taken, these results 
will ever be secured. It is pertinent, therefore, to in- 
quire, in the first place, after the habits and traits of 
character that render children and men and women 
useful; and, in the second place, how far these duties 
can be rendered efficient in the formation and develop- 
ment of these habits and traits. 



school business. 157 

Section 1 — Habits of Neatness, Cleanliness and 
Order. — These are habits of acknowledged merit, but 
at the same time subject to woeful neglect. How far, 
then, can the actual duties of the school be rendered 
efficacious, aud how far can special duties be intro- 
duced that shall not conflict with these, and still be 
the instruments in the formation of these habits, are 
questions that ought to be considered. 

The position is assumed in the Science of Education, 
that neatness aud cleanliness, and indeed all forms of 
outward refinement, as well as heart culture, keep 
exact pace with the march of intelligence, provided 
always, that the subject of culture is a fair one, and 
the system philosophical. This position is true be- 
yond controversy, or else education is a failure ; and 
we add here, that when these effects are not produced, 
the teacher may be sure that something is wrong. It 
follows, therefore, that with every increase in knowl- 
edge and development, there should be a correspond- 
ing improvement in the personal appearance — in the 
habits of neatness, cleanliness, order, etc. But how 
is this effected ? Will the simple acquisition accom- 
plish this, without special direction and application? 
We answer, not to the full extent, any more than 
plowing the ground, and sowing the seed will produce 
the harvest. There must be a nurture, a careful cul- 
tivation, and a husbanding of the stores, before the 
precious grain can be rendered serviceable to man. 
It is thus with the processes of education. Its full 
rewards are never realized, until the uses of knowl- 
edge are fully established. But how shall pupils be 
made to feel the force of this general development, in 
this special direction ? What special exercises can be 
adopted that will increase the point and power of gen- 



158 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

eral acquisition ? We shall now endeavor to answer 
these questions. 

1. Every child's desk or seat and its premises should 
be considered his home. He has, or ought to have, 
books, papers, pencils, slates, and various other appa- 
ratus, which are essentially his utensils and instru- 
ments for carrying on his employment. In this it is 
like home. He has duties to perform ; he is in this 
respect, imitating, to all intents and purposes, the 
scene that will soon open before him on a larger scale, 
on the stage of active life. Every child's domain in 
the school-room being his home, it should be consid- 
ered under his special charge, while the teacher has 
the general supervision. The pupil is responsible for 
the order and neatness of this charge, and this respon- 
sibility should be just as binding as that of recitation. 
There should be therefore, in every school, a standard 
of order and neatness, just as there is in recitation. 
The position of every article of his stock of imple- 
ments, should all be decided upon. One great reason, 
and perhaps the chief, that children are not neater 
and more orderly is because they have no standard, 
hence no ideal nor ideas, as to what constitutes true 
order, further than what they may have gathered 
from very uncertain teaching. Let these standards 
and tests be furnished, and contended for, in the same 
manner as other excellencies are, and it would not be 
long before the whole face of education and of nature 
would be changed. 

What is true in reference to the domain of each 
scholar, and of the whole school-room, each one being 
responsible for that portion of it in his vicinity, is 
also true in reference to each pupil's clothing and per- 
gonal appearance; and as no litter of any kind should 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 



159 



be allowed to collect upon the premises of any one, so 
none should collect upon the person of any one. If 
the house should be clean, so should be the house- 
keeper. Let both be insisted upon with the same per- 
tinacity with which other duties are, and it will not 
be long before these same habits will reproduce and 
perpetuate themselves in dress and personal appear- 
ance. The boys will not leave mud or filth upon 
their feet and clothing any more than they would 
upon the floor or in their desks. The girls will not 
permit their dresses to appear in a slovenly and slat- 
tern way. The school-house and yard will soon show 
signs of improvement. The window-blinds will be 
more neatly adjusted. The shawls, bonnets and hats 
will be disposed of in a more orderly manner. The 
floor will be kept clean, and the furniture will be 
dusted. The smaller pupils will catch the spirit, and 
will soon learn that a spot of mud or dirt upon their 
clothing or their premises, is out of order; that a tat- 
tered garment, unwashed hand or face, and uncombed 
hair are disorderly ; and that filthy and slovenly hab- 
its, vice and suffering are all of the same species of 
disorder. What a world of happiness is thrown away 
by those who neglect these little things ! How our 
homes might rejoice under the transforming influence 
of this genius of order, provided the same attention 
were bestowed upon these things that is bestowed 
upon arithmetic and grammar! Just as if these alone 
would make people neat and tidy, contented and 
happy! The happiness of the world does not depend 
half so much upon these as upon the little things we 
overlook in our rage after the " mint and cum nun." 
Roses mi^ht bloom where naught bat briers grow: 



160 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

life and beauty where naught but desolation reigns; 
happiness where naught but misery. 

In addition to this standard of order and neatness 
in the school-room, there should also be, at least a 
daily inspection, and a report on the conditions of 
things, which report should be considered of as much 
value in determining the standing of the pupil as that 
of study or recitation. This would invest these duties 
with the same degree of interest that others have. It 
is unreasonable to suppose that our children will at- 
tach any effective importance to them, unless they are 
brought into prominent notice. It is a rare instance 
indeed that children become what we propose to make 
them, merely by preceptive instruction. In this, as in 
all other departments, they must actually engage in the 
duty, and feel its responsibility. 

Section 2 — Promptness and Punctuality are traits 
of character which this department should especially 
cultivate. These are of such vital importance, that it 
may be said with truth, that all permanent success in 
every department of business, depends upon them. 
True, the exercises of study and recitation, properly 
directed, have a tendency to cultivate these virtues ; 
but it is proper to inquire how far promptness and 
punctuality depend upon special efforts. 

1. As to time. In the transaction of these and all 
other duties, special attention should be given to the 
time. If we expect our pupils to be, in this respect, 
what our precepts would indicate, and what we expect 
of them, they must have these traits of character cul- 
tivated by the same process that others are. There 
should therefore be an exact and definite time in which 
all these duties should be conducted — exact to a min- 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 161 

ute — as much so as that a definition or rule should be 
to a word — and no ordinary excuse should justify or 
excuse a departure from it. 

2. The place and manner of disposing of these 
things should be just as definite. Every article of fur- 
niture about the premises of every pupil should have 
its appropriate place, and should be arranged in its 
appropriate manner, and with as much care as if they 
were words in a sentence, or figures in the solution 
of a problem. The one will have no greater effect 
upon the habits and happiness of the future man or 
woman than the other. Instead of books, etc., being 
thrown about the desk or room in that confused man- 
ner which usually costs the pupil and teacher so much 
perplexity, they should be arranged in just such a 
place and in just such a manner; so that when the 
pupil has need of any of them, ho need not disturb 
the whole school, rummaging in his confused pack, ask- 
ing a dozen needless and impertinent questions about 
this thing and that, before finding what he wants. 
How frequently is this the case ! And how unhappy, 
not to say miserable, this makes a school ! And then 
this habit is carried right into whatever business or 
employment the pupil may select in after life. If 
he become a mechanic, with these evil habits cling- 
ing to him, his tools and materials will present the 
sanu disorderly appearance. His saws and files, and 
nails and hatchets and hammers, will be thrown con- 
fusedly together, to be injured by the' contact; and 
square and compass, augers and bits, planes and chisels, 
will be lost in a heap of rubbish, while his nice pat- 
terns and plates will be greased and soiled — the whole 
a fair transcript of his desk in school. 

If he become a farmer, his fields will be out of pro- 
14 



lb-> THE ART OF TEACHING. 

portion. An unsightly stump or tree will be standing 
where it ought not to be. and a dozen will be cut down 
or marred where they ought to be cultivated. His 
fences will be thrown down, or overgrown with bram- 
bles. Little patches of ground will be left unculti- 
vated here and there, about the stumps and wet or 
stony places. His door-yard, if he have any, will be 
bleak and naked, the object of constant depredations 
from pigs and geese. His cows and sheep, hogs and 
horses, will all herd together; and his barn-yard will 
become the common rendezvous for the vagabond ani- 
mals of the neighborhood. His buildings — well, look 
there ! You may see them all out of repair, and 
bleaching in the sun and rain. The saddle and rakes 
are on the porch — a roosting-place for hens — while 
bits of broken harness, and remains of harrows, orna- 
ment the piazza. Old barrels and benches lumber the 
barn, and pitchforks and plows, scythes and sickles, the 
house and yard. If he become a professional man, 
his office and study will present a similar picture; if .a 
merchant or banker, his books and ledgers will be 
crowded and confused; his accounts unsettled and 
uncertain. 

But careless and slovenly habits are not alone felt 
by men. They visit some of their worst woes upon 
women. The young lady (?) of disorderly habits, per- 
haps becomes a wife and a housekeeper. Her house — 
But we forbear. We will not uncover the secrets 
within. Over this sad picture we would draw a vail. 
We fain would hide it from mortal sight. It were 
enough to say, that in too many instances, squalid 
wretchedness, angry broils, unhappy households, dis- 
sipated husbands, children driven from what should 
be a peaceful fireside, to seek a gratification of the 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 163 

social nature amid scenes of dissipation and vice, all 
testify but too strongly against the neglect to cultivate 
habits of neatness, order, promptness and punctuality, 
in connection with social and aesthetic training. 

Section 3 — Aids to Duties and Emergencies. — 
Another object, which alone should be sufficient to 
secure the special attention to these habits, is the aid 
they would afford in the performance of other duties, 
and the ability they would impart to ward off danger. 
ISTo one can estimate the value of the time lost in fruit- 
less attempts to prosecute business, under circumstan- 
ces where everything is out of time and place. This 
evil is felt severely in the school-room, but not more 
severely there than on the stage of active life. When 
a book is wanted, for instance, from which to prepare 
a hurried lesson, it is lost—" somebody has taken it," 
An impatient search commences, during which an 
inkstand or two arc upset, the contents besmearing the 
books and furniture. Pupils in the vicinity are an- 
noyed. Much time and patience are lost, and above 
all the peace and order of the whole school are dis- 
turbed by one such pupil. What, then, must be the 
fate of that school, composed — teacher and all — of 
such? It is more easily imagined than told. But 
another object, connected with this article, deserves no- 
tice here. It is the provision or preparation that may 
be made, while in school, against the emergencies, acci- 
dents and casualties incident to human life. 

In this uncertain world, accidents will happen. 
While their number and severity may be much re- 
duced by an enlightened and highly liberal education ; 
yet it would be vain to expect to escape all of them. 
It were, therefore, wiser to provide for them. It is a 



164 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

well-known fact too, that few people possess sufficient 
self-control, in cases of severe accidents, or in places 
of imminent danger, to enable them to do any thing 
available, either for their relief or rescue. In fact, in 
the great majority of instances, the dangers and mis- 
haps are aggravated for the want of coolness and self- 
possession in the hour and article of imminent peril — 
such, for instance, as in cases of fire, of drowning, of 
poison, or in the case of asphyxia from any cause. 
The man who climbed to the third story of a burning 
house and threw from the window a mantle-clock anjd 
looking-glass, down upon the pavement below, and 
then caught up a feather bed, ran down two flights of 
stairs and carefully deposited it in the street, is but too 
apt an illustration of the want of sense that usually 
prevails on such occasions. A few noble exceptions, 
I know, we have on record, but these only show us 
what could be done, provided the masses could be im- 
bued with the same spirit, and these noble traits of 
character cultivated. 

What an awful calamity was that which occurred a 
few years since, in one of our Eastern cities, where 
hundreds of children were precipitated down two or 
three flights of stairs, and crushed in one mangled 
mass below, — and all from a false alarm of lire! 
Now, without reflecting the least blame upon those 
teachers, allow us to ask, could not these children have 
been saved ? Could they not have been taught, by 
rigid and careful training, to master their feelings by 
their judgment ? Could they not have been taught to 
sit quietly in their seats and await the orders of their 
teachers, in such cases of danger? I know they could, 
provided they had been taught lessons on the dangers 
of precipitation, as carefully as they had been in read- 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 1<)5 

ing and arithmetic. I say taught, because I believe 
children should be shown, by actual experiment, that 
they only endanger themselves by haste in such in- 
stances. Let the experiment be made with the chil- 
dren in going out in a disorderly and hurried manner 
— of course avoiding danger — and then, in a quiet and 
orderly manner, and the difference in time noted. Let 
it be made frequently, and practiced for the express 
purpose of providing against accidents, etc.: and it 
will be found that from one half to three fourths of a 
minute is sufficient time for all to quit the premises of 
an ordinary building. Let them see that one minute 
and a half, at most, is sufficient time to allow all the 
inmates to escape from a burning building, provided 
all are orderly; and that it will require ten times as 
long if they are not, and that no fire is likely to occur 
which would destroy egress in one minute of time; 
and that should this be the case, disorderly haste only 
augments and aggravates the delay. 

This imperturable coolness and calculation in mo- 
ments of peril or emergency, will prove of infinitely 
more service to the pupils in their lives, perhaps, than 
nine tenths of all their learning, and will not, mean- 
while, interfere at all with it. And then in cases 
of that most frequent and frightful, yet most un- 
necessary, as well as too frequently fatal class of acci- 
dents tLe explosion of lamps, and burnings from the 
clothes taking fire, how many might be saved if they 
bad only been taught how ! Not only how to extin- 
guish flame, but how to possess their wits at such 
times. But let it be shown also, how the flames can 
be extinguished under such circumstances. Perhaps, 
it would not be good policy or even safe to set any one 
on fire, for the benefits of the experiment; and yet 



166 THE ART OF. TEACHING. 

the whole process might be shown in a. very short 
time to a class of children, which, but for this timely 
instruction, might not only always be ignorant upon 
those points, but the actual sufferers themselves. 

And so in reference to poisoning, or suffocation 
from any cause, severe wounds, freezing, etc., etc., all 
these things and their remedies and modes of treat- 
ment, should be discussed in a few practical lessons in 
every school in the land. The antidotes and remedies 
for these are usually forgotten in the fright that occurs 
under such circumstances ; but if children are taught 
in a series of lessons as before indicated, and these 
things made the subject of frequent reference, the 
occasions would be rare indeed, in which they would 
either be forgotten or neglected from any other cause. 

This part of the subject might be continued at great 
length, but the information upon these points is abun- 
dant. All that seems necessary is that the teacher 
prepare himself to make use of the means ; and we 
might add, that no teacher who neglects these things, 
does his whole duty. 

Article 2— Requisites, etc. 

We shall now devote a few pages to the considera- 
tion of some of the requisites and means, for carrying 
forward this species of culture. We have endeavored 
to show, in connection with the objects and neces- 
sities, the manner in which the habits of neatness, 
order, etc., may be established in early life. It might 
be well to inquire further as to the advantages and op- 
portunities, the school-room affords for such a course. 

Section 1 — Change of Exercises. — Aside from the 
advantages of convenient school-rooms, plenty of appa- 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 167 

rat us, etc., etc., which have been noticed in another 
place, there is this additional one, rising out of a 
necessity for a change of employment, which is con- 
tinually recurring. It will be seen, furthermore, by 
a reference to the close of this chapter, that a certain 
amount of time is appropriated to the several duties 
of each day. The changes from one duty to another, 
therefore, afford the very means we could desire for 
the cultivation of promptness and precision, both as 
to time and manner. 

1. There is a necessity for change of classes, oc- 
curring periodically. These changes should not only 
take place precisely at the same time each day, but 
should be conducted with strict uniformity as to man- 
ner, etc. Children should be taught among the first 
things, to pass to and from the recitation seat with 
the utmost care. But there will always be more or 
less noise on such occasions. It would not be wise to 
insist upon the usual quiet during these changes. 
But this time should by no means be lost. It may 
be devoted, by pre-arrangement, to the transaction of 
any business that might require the pupils to leave 
their seats. 

2. It may, and in most cases it is necessary to keep 
up fires, or to attend to ventilation. This is the time 
for these duties, and they should not be allowed to 
usurp any other. How unpleasant and unreasonable 
It is to have a boy rattling at a stove, or banging at 
a door or window or a ventilator (if the school is for- 
tunate enough to have any), while the teacher is 
engaged in hearing a class of pupils that may be 
troubled with weak voices and weak nerves. Rather 
let there he a fixed time and a distinct understanding 
in reference to these duties, and let them be attended 



168 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

to when there will be the least loss of time, and the 
least interruption in other directions. 

Again : communications are necessary. Aside 
from the fact that children are eminently social be- 
ings, and hence ought not to be deprived of this priv- 
ilege entirely, there are duties and labors which ren- 
der it absolutely necessary that pupils should commu- 
nicate, both with one another, and with their teacher. 
There should, therefore, be a time set apart for this 
purpose. It might be called whispering or business 
moments, and should occur at least once an hour, but 
should not exceed from three to five minutes in length. 
All communications between the pupils, and all ques- 
tions to the teacher, that do not require lengthy an- 
swers (most of this latter class come in recitation), 
should be reserved for this time, aud not allowed to 
mingle with and obstruct other duties. This arrange- 
ment will very much facilitate business generally, and 
besides it will be the surest means of suppressing that 
troublesome practice, among pupils, of communicating 
at improper times. Perhaps no one evil has been 
more universally dreaded, or more stoutly opposed 
with poor success ; and the chief reason for this is 
found in the fact that, in the great majority of cases, 
no provision has been made for an outlet of this 
superabundant and pent-up vitality and sociability. 

Let there be a time set apart for this, just as for 
any other necessity, and let no communications (ex- 
cept cases of extreme necessity) be permitted at any 
other time, not even the simplest question. It nnerht 
be a little inconvenient and seem a little hard for a 
boy or girl to be compelled to wait half an hour 
before he or she might be permitted to ask what 
seemed a very necessary question : but it should be 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 169 

remembered that in a school, as well as in a larger 
community, individual interests and preferences must 
yield to the public good. But in most cases, it will 
be found that the business, or request, is not so urgent 
that it may not be delayed without damaging any 
one; and not only so, but that a very wholesome les- 
son may thereby be taught the delinquent, in re- 
ference to attending to these things at their proper 
times. 

Suppose a pupil, for instance, has neglected to note 
the lesson assigned on a previous day, and that when 
he takes his book for the purpose of preparing said 
lesson, he has forgotten where or how it begins; but 
his companion next to him knows all about it: now 
may he not obtain permission to inquire after said les- 
son ? No: rather let him suffer the ill consequences 
of a failure, so that he may avoid a like calamity in 
future. Or suppose he has neglected, at the proper 
time, to get a book that lies within a few yards of 
him, and that that book is necessary for the prepara- 
tion of the next lesson, may he not ask for it? No : 
let him suffer the consequences, rather than establish 
a bad precedent. Let the penalty fall upon the guilty 
one, and upon no other. This constitutes an addi- 
tional reason, why there should be a set time for all 
these duties. A few weeks' practice will teach the 
pupils to dispose of all their items of business at the 
proper time. How much better thus than to suffer 
the constant annoyance of an attempt to carry on all 
these departments at once ! The communications 
should all be disposed of here, the study and reci- 
tations at their respective times, and practice will 
soon insure all this. How much better thus than to 

mix them all together! And how r much better than to 
15 



170 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 



insist upon constant quiet, and perhaps obtain nothing 
more than constant disturbance. Therefore, provide 
whispering moments, and let these be observed as 
scrupulously as any other duty. 

Section 2 — An Order of Duties. — Every child 
should be provided with an order of duties. Those who 
are able to write, should prepare these, in which every 
duty shall be provided for, and every moment of time 
employed. These orders after being prepared by the 
pupils, might be submitted to the teacher for inspec- 
tion and improvement, as before directed. For the 
younger classes, they should be written out upon the 
board, or upon cards, and so arranged that, with the 
aid of the teacher, they may direct them in the dispo- 
sition of their time also. This measure thoroughly 
adopted and carried out in all the schools, would, of 
itself, do more to systematize labor, and hence remove 
the many evils complained of by teachers, and at the 
same time assist the pupils in their duties, than almost 
any other one thing. And then it is just what is 
wanted to form and establish good habits and prepare 
our pupils for the practical duties of life. 

This order should differ from the "order of exer- 
cises," described in another place. That is general, 01 
for the whole school; this is particular, or for indi 
viduals and classes. 

Section 3 — Close Attention. — Another requisite 
is close attention. In order to meet the claims of this 
severe regime, there must be no inattention or idleness. 
The system admits of none. The moment the child 
indulges, he is lost. He is out of his place, and falls 
behind. The system itself will either correct him, or, 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 171 

in time, banish him. While there is ample time 
given for communication, recreation and amusement 
(and these duties should be encouraged just as others 
are), there is no time spent without a purpose or an 
object. 

Now let a child, or let all our children remain from 
five to seven years under this severe drill, in which they 
acquire the habit of making use of all their time, and 
what will be the probable, nay almost certain effects up- 
on them ? Time and existence would not then become a 
burden. They would not be sent adrift from the school, 
to become a prey to idleness and the dupes of vice. 
Their education will have fortified them against these 
calamities, instead of exposing them to them. The 
world would be rid of a race of vagabonds ; virtue 
and innocence would be comparatively safe ; and com- 
parative peace and plenty would reign in all the 
walks of life. Would not this be worth atrial? Are 
not this rigid discipline and order more to be desired 
than the mere acquisition of knowledge, especially, 
since they are the safest means of accomplishing even 
this? 

Again: self-denial and frugality will be required. 
As before remarked, the pupil's personal preferences, 
will, in many instances, have to be sacrificed to the 
general welfare; and he will soon learn to make use 
of the allotted time for the performance of each duty. 
Here again, he will only be cultivating feelings and 
habits that he will be called upon to exercise in the 
drama of life. How much evil does this world suffer 
from indulgence and indolence ! Might not these be 
arrested here, before they find too deep root in the 
habits of life ? Mighr not the school assist in this 
preparation ? Is not this its legitimate object ? Would 



172 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

not the discipline and order necessary to carry on this 
exact training, meet the demand exactly ? In one 
word, is it not the most evident intention of all educa- 
tion to regulate man's forces, and to give him entire 
command of all his powers? Let the school then be 
the instrument of earnest and wisely directed labor; 
not a mere farce, or a place where a few feeble, sickly 
exercises, are engaged in. day after day. for the pur- 
pose of filling up the time. Xo wonder that the 
children turn with- loathing, in many instances, from 
such tame and tasteless humdrum, such irksome and 
aimless toil. But we leave this part of the subject. 
to consider for a moment. 

Article 3— The mode of Conducting, etc. 

This part of the subject will require but little atten- 
tion, since the manner of conducting these exercises 
will readily be inferred from what has already been 
said. We might add a few directions, however, by 
way of completing the outline. 

1. Dispatch, or haste without confusion. 2. A mod- 
erate degree of stillness in the transaction of the va- 
rious items. 3. Scrupulous care '.'racy in ref- 
erence to the arrangements of books, apparatus, etc., 
and also in the movements of the body ; all of which 
topics we shall discuss in the same connection. They 
are all important features in the transaction of busi- 
ness of any kind: but when we come to apply them 
to the r-ehool-room, and to make them the type or 
standard of the whole life business, their importance 
is very much augmented. 

It will be found, upon the introduction of the plans 
and practices here suggested, that much that has been 
as-i^ned, will be neglected for want of time; and this 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 173 

will be the standing excuse for non-performance; for 
children, if left to have their own way, will usually 
consume twice or three times as much time as is 
really necessary; besides, they are not always aware 
of how little noise is really necessary, and ot' how 
much real advantage scrupulous care and accuracy in 
the arrangements are, in the transacion of the vari- 
ous duties of the school-room. Hence these things 
should be shown to them, in a series of special exer- 
cises, and then practiced in all the regular duties. 
One class of such exercises might be called " Hand- 
ling books and apparatus. " 

For the special drills in this exercise there might be 
a " word of command ; " such, for instance, as is usual 
in Calisthenics. The first might be, " Preparation for 
study; " in which every book, paper, etc., not to be used 
should be put away in proper order in the desk. Let 
it be done too, in the speediest manner possible, and 
with no unnecessary noise, and the proper position as- 
sumed, with books closed and eyes turned toward the 
teacher; because it often is necessary for him to give 
some directions and explanations about the recitations 
at such times, when it is very annoying to him, for the 
pupils to be giving their attention to their books. On 
such occasions, when the books and slates are brought 
out for use, there will necessarily be a rustling, caused 
by the great number of movements of this character, 
at the same time; but there need be none of that 
obstreperous slamming and banging, so common on 
such occasions, caused perhaps by a half-dozen slates 
let fall upon the floor, or two or three desks upset, on 
making the change from one posture to another. If 
the first trial is not successful, let the books, etc., be 



174 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

replaced, and the experiment repeated again and 
again, until the proper movements are secured. 

A second word of command might be, " Preparation 
for recitation" in which every thing not needed in 
recitation shall be disposed of in a similar manner. It 
is customary to give a signal for rising, before coming 
to the recitation seat, and one for advancing, and 
sometimes one for being seated, and for proper arrange- 
ment. With scholars undrilled, the first few attempts 
will be unsatisfactory. A part will not be quite ready; 
hence some will rise after the balance are up: others 
perhaps, not having obeyed the first summons, will be 
occupying such positions as will very much interfere 
with their graceful movements; hence in rising they 
are apt to make a disturbance. Others again, will 
slowly unbend themselves from a circular posture 
which they may have assumed, and will occupy about 
as much time in rising as an old, superannuated ox 
would. Others will perhaps bound to their feet with 
a quick, nervous movement, that will be equally 
objectionable. All these movements must be regu- 
lated. In coming to the recitation seat, some perhaps 
will dally with some trifling amusement by the w r ay ; 
some will lounge lazily along, and swing themselves 
into the seat, as if it were a place of torture — and 
perhaps it really is to some. Others again will jostle 
a book or slate upon the floor, or upset a desk or an 
inkstand ; and altogether there will be about as much 
noise as a four-horse team, or a drove of cattle would 
make in the passage of a bridge. But let the experi- 
ment, in all the necessary variety of movements, be 
repeated for the express purpose of improving them. 
In rising up and sitting down, for instance, if it be 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 175 

not in good taste, let the class be politely requested to 
be seated, the error pointed out, and the whole process 
repeated; and so of advancing, seating and retiring, 
until satisfactory results are secured. A similar op- 
portunity occurs for cultivating these habits of neat- 
ness and propriety at the opening and closing of school, 
and at all the regular recesses. Let the same exact- 
ness and care be exercised in these as in others; and 
it will not be long before the pupils will begin to 
regard all the exercises of the school-room with a 
new degree of interest. They will look upon them as 
the means of improvement, and their diffident, uncouth 
and vulgar habits will give way for those of refine- 
ment and order. 

The following scheme for the division of time and 
labor will be found suggestive, at least. While it is 
not claimed that this, or indeed that any could be de- 
vised, that would meet all the circumstances of every 
school, yet it is claimed that the time and duties of 
every school in the land may be arranged in a manner 
similar to this; and the benefits arising from such a 
disposition of affairs would more than compensate for 
any difficulties that might be experienced in putting 
it into practice. Let it be written or printed in large 
type, and so placed that all in the room may be able 
to read it. It will be necessary also, to have a clock, 
and a small bell, in order to mark those divisions of 
time. Some teachers have found it a good plan to 
appoint monitors daily to take charge of the bell, and 
to mark by slight strokes upon it — -just enough to be 
heard by all the school — the several divisions of time 
as they occur. Others again, have found it best to 
take the entire charge of it themselves. 



17f) THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Order of Daily Exercises. 

FORENOON. 

From 9.00 to 9.10 Opening Exercises 10 nun 

9.10 " 9.20 Study 10 " 

" 9.20 " 9.40 Beginning Class 20 " 

9.40 " 10.00 Reading (C) 20 " 

" 10.00 " 10.05 Business 5 " 

" 10.05 " 10.25 Reading (B) 20 " 

" 10.25 " 10.35 Recess 10 " 

" 10.35 " 11.00 Arithmetic (A) 25 " 

" 11.00 " 11.20 Arithmetic (B) 20 " 

" 11.20 " 11.25 Business 5 " 

" 11.25 " 11.45 Arith. (C) (M. & W.) • • • 20 " 

" 11.45 " 12.00 General Exercises 15 " 

AFTERNOON. 

From 1.00 to 1.10 Study 10 min. 

1.10" 1.35 Reading (A) 25 " 

" 1.35 " 1.55 Beginning Class 20 " 

" 1.55 " 2.00 Business 5 " 

" 2.00 " 2.20 Grammar (B) 20 " 

" 2.20 " 2.45 Grammar (A) 25 " 

" 2.45 " 2.55 Recess 10 " 

2.55 " 3.20 Geography (A) 25 " 

3.20 " 3.40 Geography (B) 20 " 

" 3.40 " 3.55 General Exercises 15 " 

" 3.55 " 4.00 Closing 5 " 

The above is more to show the necessity and prac- 
ticability of a Plan, than to describe one. For the 
want of something of this kind, the energies of the 
teacher and the time of the pupils are spent in useless 
attempts to perform the duties of the school-room. 



SCHOOL BUSINESS. 177 

It will be observed that no provision is made for 
Writing and Spelling. A part of the former, and per- 
haps all the latter may be done in connection with 
Reading, and other lessons, as practiced in our best 
schools. Neither is there any provision made for the 
higher branches; but it will most frequently occur 
that some of the classes provided for above will not be 
needed. In that case the higher branches may take 
their places. If not, then the other exercises will have 
to be shortened. 

The limited number of classes may be objected to 
by some, but we venture to say that the Reading and 
Arithmetic classes may be classified in three divisions 
each, with a beginning class, etc., and the Geography 
and Grammar may be classified in two divisions. The 
needless multiplication of classes to accommodate 
either parents, pupils or p ublis hers is ruining the order 
and efficiency of many schools. Tea'chers should be 
competent to judge, and should have the authority to 
say what and how many classes there should be in the 
school. 



178 



THE ART OP TEACHING. 



syhntozpsis v. 



g 

- 

2 



Objk( ts. 



To rest and invigorate the system, and pre 
vent disease. To aid in symmetrical devel 
opment of" body. To secure ease, grace, and 
dignity in movement. 



r Periodically. Daily. Evening 
Time. -< At school, during regular re 
V. cesses. 



r Open air. Play-Ground. 
RECREATION. J Rkquisites. \ Place. \ Play-room. Groves. 






Pleasant surroundings. 



Moderation. Pleasant company 
^ Manner. ^ An object in view. 

Free from care. Protection. 



C Innocent and active games of rivalry 
Varieties. -; Pleasure and scientific excursions. 
V. Calisthenic exercises. 



RECREATION. 179 



CHAPTER V. 

RECREATION. 

It has become necessary to refer to this subject so 
irequently in the course of this work, that its separate 
treatment here would not be demanded were it not to 
show the relation it sustaius to the special duties; and 
further to set forth that part of it which relates to those 
duties, in as condensed and as connected a form as 
possible. 

The very nature of education is such that recreation 
enters into it, just as essentially as water does into the 
composition of plants. Indeed there is no education, 
and there can be none ; neither can there be life or 
growth in the animal world, without it. It is, as the 
etymology of the term implies, the re-creating or re- 
newing process, by which, in the animal world, the 
old and worn-out particles of matter in the system are 
removed, and their places supplied by new ones. In 
this respect, it is a highly useful process, since the 
health and happiness of the individual depend so es- 
sentially upon it. These particles, if not removed 
from the system, become obstructions to a healthy 
vitality, and hence are the fruitful source of disease. 
And if new particles are not supplied, as the old are 
removed, there is consequent emaciation. This truth 
has also an important bearing upon the intellectual and 
moral man. The mental powers need the renovating 
influence of activity and rest, since their operation is 
through a physical organism. 



180 THE ART OV TEACHING. 

Now, the whole thing is reduced to this: to recreate 
there must be both exercise and rest — exercise and 
activity or motion of the several parts, in order to 
throw off the waste material, and to aid in the deposi- 
tion of the new — rest, to allow time for settling and 
fixing the deposits, and renewing and invigorating 
the weary powers. The question now arises, are the 
exercises of the schoolroom prejudicial or beneficial to 
this natural and necessary process? If necessarily 
prejudicial, then there is antagonism between man 
and his own happiness — an inconsistency so glaring 
as to forbid belief; if unnecessarily so, then the health 
and happiness of the race would demand an immedi- 
ate reform. If recreative exercises are beneficial, then 
they should be encouraged and practiced. These 
reasons, and others that might be given, are suffi- 
ciently apparent to warrant their introduction and 
practice in the schoolroom. For further evidence 
upon this subject, the reader is referred to those sec- 
tions where its claims, as an educational force, are 
treated more at length. 

Article 1— Necessity and Objects. 

In accordance with the views expressed above, among 
the first necessities, objects and uses, would be that of 
resting the mind and body. It is a well-known fact, 
that change of employment rests and invigorates 
or renews the system. This is effected chiefly by 
changing the position of the exercise from one point 
to another. It is equally well known that in the con- 
finement necessary for protracted study, certain parts 
of the system suffer more than others : certain parts 
are brought into almost constant exercise, while 
others remain in comparative inactivity ; and that 



RECREATION. 181 

some powers are exercised almost constantly, in the 
same employment, while a simple change in the direc- 
tion would relieve them. At such times there will be 
a desire for either motion, rest, or change. 

Section 1 — To Invigorate the System. — Now it 
should be the care of the teacher not to allow any of 
the desires to end in evil, or even to run to waste. 
They are all needed in educating the child. The object, 
therefore, of all recreative exercises, should be to con- 
tine, as much as possible, the exercises to those parts 
most needing them, to rest those which have been over- 
taxed, and to change or reverse the movements of those 
parts which suffer most from continuous exercise in 
the same directions. These principles apply to the mind 
and body, considered as two reciprocal agents; for the 
one may be rested by the exercise of the other : but 
their chief application belongs to the interchangeable 
relations existing between faculties and sets of facul- 
ties, belonging to the same particular structure. The 
main object of recreation, therefore, in the school, 
should be to equalize and distribute wisely the exer- 
cise and rest necessary to produce the most harmoni- 
ous results, both in body and in mind. 

Section 2 — To Prevent Disease. — A second ob- 
ject, though scarcely removed from the one just de- 
scribed, is to prevent and to cure disease. It is said by 
anatomists, that there are two contending forces in 
the animal structure ; the one organizing in its proc- 
esses, the other disorganizing : the one is life, the 
other is death ; and that we exist between these two 
forces, the one building us up, the other tearing us 
down ; and that we actually live by the process of 



182 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

dying. Now it would seem that when our vital forces 
become so exhausted and weakened, either from over- 
exertion or want of exertion, that the disorganizing 
processes become the stronger; that actual disease 
then fastens upon us, arresting for the time being, the 
entire process of organization : hence both the suffer- 
ing and emaciation caused by sickness. 

It therefore becomes a matter of the greatest im- 
portance, to preserve, as nearly as possible, the bal- 
ance between these forces. Especially is this neces- 
sary in childhood and youth, when, from natural 
causes, the building-up processes should excel -the 
tearing down. At this period * — as we have shown 
in other places — owing to the peculiarly flexible, and 
continually changing nature of the substances, the 
liabilities to contract disease are greater. But these 
tendencies to disorganization may, from the same 
cause, be more easily counteracted, since the subject 
is in a formative state, and liable to either direction, 
determined by the stronger force. It should therefore 
be the chief object of the teacher to fortify those points 
most exposed, whether they relate to the body or to 
the mind, and to build up a superstructure of the 
greatest possible strength and durability. 

It is also true that disease may be arrested, even 
after it has made considerable progress, provided the 
treatment is such as to assist the building-up pro- 
cesses to such an extent as to throw the balance in 
their favor. The lungs, for instance, may be suffer- 
ing, or may be diseased ; but pure air is their element 
and nourishment. By wise and judicious breathing 
therefore, the disease may be thrown off and the parts 

* Transition, and perhaps the same is true of the objection. 



RECREATION. 183 

healed. The stomach, and consequently the whole 
system, may be suffering from indigestion. There is. 
perhaps, a demand for additional fluids, or motions that 
will produce them, less stimulating food, or healthier 
blood. If these demands are complied with, and the 
derangement has not become too deep-seated, the 
powers soon regain their accustomed vigor ; and so of 
all the vital organs. Sometimes exercise, sometimes 
rest is required. But since many of the duties and 
exercises of the school, unless carefully guarded, in- 
vite disease; and since many diseases are already 
formed from this and other causes, it should be one 
of the special objects of recreation to remove the ob- 
structions from the path of human progress and hap- 
piness. For what other purpose could this desire for 
amusement, diversion, change, etc., have been given 
us? Surely not that it might torment us, or lead us 
astray ! Let the teacher, therefore, seize hold of it, 
and use it, not only to guard his pupils against the 
encroachments of disease, but for its actual removal. 

Section 3 — To Facilitate Growth. — Another 
prominent object of recreative exercises, is the valu- 
able aid they render in the symmetrical development 
of the body. One of the saddest pictures our sin- 
smitten race presents, is the distorted, sickly and in- 
sufficient development of body. The world resembles 
one great hospital, and its inhabitants the inmates, 
with here and there an exceptional case. The great 
majority seem to be suffering from some malady. 
Weakness of limb and lungs, of body and brain, 
sunken chests and crooked backs, diseased livers and 
distorted spines, poor digestion and poorer powers of 
endurance, are but the common heritage of our race. 



184 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Indeed it is in the rarest instances that the adage of 
the ancients, " Mens sana in corpore sano" is realized 
in the present day, yet education is the boast of this 
same generation. In the very jaws of disease, we lift 
up our feeble huzzas for human progress. We boast 
of our national and internal improvements, and at 
the same time hug our bodily complaints and mala- 
dies as evidences of our refinement. But away with 
such an education and such refinement from the face 
of the earth ! They are a moral pestilence and have 
no business among a race of men. 

If sunken cheeks and sallow skin, if hollow eyes 
and emaciated forms, if physical debility and suffering, 
are evidences of education and refinement, then, oh, 
give me blissful ignorance, and the life of the savage! 
If the broad shoulders and stalwart frame, the ruddy 
cheek and plump rounded limb, the firm, elastic step 
and bounding form, the sparkling eye and the joyous 
laugh, must yield to the narrow chest and pinched up 
dandy form, the spindle shanks and lily hand, the 
sickly, sentimental face and its usual accompaniment, 
a shallow brain, the languid walk and almost breath- 
less sigh ; if cotton must take the place of muscle, 
sound, healthy muscle — and paints and powders the 
place of the roses and flush of health ; if these and 
more than these must become our heritage, then close 
up the school-houses and colleges, and let the races, 
yet to come, escape their horrors. 

But these calamities are only the results of inade- 
quate education. They constitute no part of a sound 
system of culture, any more than a failure in bank 
stock constitutes a part of political economy. Educa- 
tion makes a strong body as well as a strong brain. 
It makes a good heart as well as a wise head. It 



RECREATION. 185 

gives a symmetrical development to every limb and 
muscle, as well as strength to the understanding and 
judgment. It gives beauty and elasticity to the 
human form, as well as acuteness of reasoning and 
brilliancy of imagination. 

Now the question arises, what are the instrumen- 
talities rejected from the list, that have caused this 
breach in a symmetrical growth ? We shall not claim 
that recreation and rational amusements have been 
the only ones, for a thousand other abuses have 
wrought their inconsistencies into this tangled web, 
until, with all its excellencies, it seems to be inadequate 
for the demand. But, however much we attribute 
to other sources, it must be admitted that, if every 
encroachment of a physical nature, occasioned by 
close confinement or study, were met and repelled by 
the appropriate physical exercise ; the bodies of our 
boys and girls, if free from constitutional disease, 
would grow up sound and healthy at the same time 
in which they are acquiring knowledge, and expanding 
their minds. This, therefore, is a cardinal principle in 
every sound system of education. But it has been con- 
tended for at every step in the progress of this work. 

Section 4 — Grace in Movements, etc. — Another 
object of a similar nature to the above, is accomplish- 
ed by recreation, viz. : ease., grace and dignity of move- 
ment. This would be but the natural result of the 
preceding course of training. The healthy and full 
development of body and limb, gives command of 
all their motions, while neglect gives awkwardness 
and ill manners. What a symmetry and beauty, in 
the complete human form ! No art can equal it. 

16 



186 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Power's Greek slave, is but the impersonation of the 
perfect ideal of a great artist ; but every teacher has, 
perhaps, fifty real living beings, of the originals of 
which this is only the copy. Every one of these is 
of more value than a hundred " Greek slaves" ; and 
though he may not make models of all of them, yet 
he may make all much better ; and he does not edu- 
cate them, unless he does this. 

Again : what poetry, what magic, what majesty, in 
the proper movements of this human form ! There 
is sublimity in the sweeping torrent, as it leaps from 
the precipice to the abyss below. There is majesty 
in the oak, as it sways in the storm ; there is grandeur 
in the tread of an army, or the rush of battle. There 
is beauty in the swoop of the eagle from his mountain 
eyrie, or in the gliding of a ship upon the ocean. There 
is grace in the stately movements of the bending pines, 
and ease and elegance in the bounding of the nimble 
deer; but man combines them all in the well directed 
motions of his body. He possesses within him all 
these elements. They should therefore, be brought 
out, and cultivated to the highest degree of perfection 
that circumstances will allow. Much of usefulness, 
as well as of pleasure, especially among teachers, is 
lost by neglecting to cultivate the grace and poetry of 
motion. However much children may differ as to 
natural ability, these graces are brought to perfec- 
tion in any, only by careful practice ; and since the 
young body is most impressible, these gifts are most 
readily incorporated in their movement by early train- 
ing, — by taking advantage both of the necessity and 
desire for exercise and amusement, and making them 
subserve the double purpose of convenience and re- 



RECREATION. 



187 



fiuement. Hence it should be the object of all recre- 
ative exercises, to cultivate the easy, graceful and 
dignified, in movements and manners. 

Article 2— Requisites, etc. 

The requisites to recreation may be considered un- 
der three heads : First, m reference to the time: Sec- 
ond, in reference to the place : Third, in reference to 
the manner. 

Section 1 — The Time. — We remark, in general, that 
all recreation, and especially that kind which includes 
exercises in the shape of amusements, must be regu- 
lated with regard to time. It will no more answer the 
purposes of recreation to engage in it occasionally and 
at irregular intervals, as convenience or even as inclina- 
tion in all cases would indicate, any more than it would 
to pursue the same policy with eating and sleeping. 
The reason that we experience greater inconvenience 
from abstinence in the latter cases, is because the bless- 
ings conferred by these are more directly essential to life ; 
and also, because the processes of recreation are carried 
on even by these, and other independent modes. But 
the actual benefits of recreation are just as essentially 
interrupted by neglect or irregularity, as those to which 
allusion has been made would be, by a similar course 
pursued with them : therefore, these exercises must be 
regulated, and must occur, as nearly as possible, at reg- 
ular intervals. 

But it will not answer to make the intervals too long 
or too short, or the occasions too seldom or too frequent. 
Not being of that class of necessities which are regulated 
by nature or instinct, they are subject, more or less to 



188 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

the control of the judgment. If too frequent, tliey 
either cloy or become a passion, and thereby interfere 
with other duties. If the intervals are too great, the 
exercises lose their effects, and keep the powers in an 
unsettled state. As the day seems to be appointed to 
labor, and the night to rest, and since recreation stands 
as a necessity about where labor does, and since each 
day, for the most part, embraces the whole routine of 
essential duties, these things would seem to indicate its 
frequency. We would be safe, therefore, in saying 
that it should be at least daily. 

The next inquiry would be, What time in the day is 
most appropriate ? In this we should be guided by 
judgment again, though the inclinations point in the 
same direction. Since the powers become weary 
through toil, and since the quiet repose of nature in- 
vites, the evening, between the hours of labor and rest, 
would seem to be the appropriate time, though of 
course this could not apply so well to the school. It will 
therefore become necessary to select other times for the 
department of recreation that relates to it: and since 
the regular recesses are not employed with other 
duties, a part, at least, of this time should be devoted 
to some regular and well directed physical exercise. 

It is a well known fact, that in a great many in- 
stances, this time is spent to little purpose, compara- 
tively — usually in some trifling amusement, or idle 
gossip, without any reference to the wants or the suf- 
fering of the body. If a game of any kind is selected, 
it is just about as likely to be injurious as beneficial. 
Little or no attention is given to direct the exercises to 
those parts of the body that need them, much less to 
restrain or distribute them in due proportion. These 
and other circumstances seem to point to the regular 



RECREATION. 189 

recess as a proper time when a part, at least, of the 
great objects of recreation could be secured. This ar- 
rangement would render necessary a little direction 
from the teacher, as we have remarked in another 
place. His presence and influence are also necessary ; 
first, because if recreation is worth anything, it is worth 
directing ; secondly, it should be guarded from excess 
and abuses from other sources; thirdly, the teacher's 
presence, or influence otherwise, will have a tendency 
to restrain evil passions and vulgar and profane words; 
fourthly, it gives him the best opportunity to become 
acquainted with the dispositions and habits of the 
pupils ; fifthly, the teacher himself needs the exercise. 
It will clear his head and heart both, from the brood- 
ing cares and perplexities incident to the profession, 
and will in no measure detract from his dignity. But 
it will be found necessary to employ a small portion of 
the time outside of the regular recesses. This will fall 
under what we have denominated business moments: 
when the books and study should be laid aside for a 
few moments to engage in the hand, arm and body 
movements, such as described at the end of this chap- 
ter, under the head of Calisthenics. 

Section 2 — The Place. — For general exercises, 
such as games and sports, the open air is, by all means, 
preferable ; first, because of the purity of the atmos- 
phere — an indispensable condition to recreation ; sec- 
ondly, because of the greater freedom of motion that 
may be secured. Every school-house should have a 
play-ground, and this should be arranged with refer- 
ence to its uses, just as the school-room is with refer- 
ence to its uses. Where a play-ground can not be had, 
or will not be had, as is frequently the case in cities and 



190 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

large towns, a play-room should be fitted up with 
special reference to the wants of the children. This is 
a very desirable appendage in all cases, since in inclem- 
ent weather the play-ground would become useless. 
But in no case should the school-room be used for 
games and sports, much less for general romping. 
•It may be used, however, for regular calisthenie 
exercises. 

Again : the places of recreation and amusement 
should be free from mud and filth of every kind; and 
should be far enough removed from any public high- 
way, place of general resort, or dangerous precipice, 
rocks, rivers, lakes, ponds, or any thing that would 
endanger either the health or clothing, lives or morals 
of the pupils. Too little attention is paid to this 
matter. A dingy, dark prison-house of a place for 
play, is about as objectionable as it would be for study 
or recitation. A muddy street, or forlorn highway, or 
dirty yard or pen is not much better. But the sur- 
roundings should be as pleasant as possible. All per- 
haps are aware of the effects produced by the presence 
of beauty and order. They elevate and refine the feel- 
ings. They open the mind to free enjoyment. The 
blood flows with increased vigor, because the heart is 
glad. The waste particles are removed more rapidly, 
and the deposits are made in greater numbers, and 
with greater certainty. • A grove, from this cause, and 
since it abounds in the greatest variety of natural 
beauty, which renders it still more inviting, becomes 
the most appropriate place for a summer retreat. In 
a word, the place should be selected with express 
reference to moral and aesthetic as well as physical 
culture. 



RECREATION. 191 

g EC . 3 — The Manner. — The manner in which these 
exercises should be conducted will next claim a brief 
attention. The reference will not be so much to the 
nature of the exercises as to a few cautions and general 
directions. 

1. Moderation in the movements is one of the most 
important of these. The tendencies, especially after 
confinement to hard study, are to excess. Students in 
colleges, who perhaps have been accustomed to active 
life, are liable to err in this direction. They confine 
themselves closely to study, until they feel the impera- 
tive necessity of recreation or exercise, when, from an 
excess of vitality, they enter upon it so suddenly and 
so violently, that they often impair their health and 
endanger their lives. All exercises of this kind, and 
of every kind, in order to be profitable, must be ap- 
proached gradually, and increased as the demand in- 
creases. At first they should be mild and of short 
duration, and, on each succeeding occasion, augmented 
slightly, both in quantity and quality, until the utmost 
power of endurance is reached, or until the object, 
whatever it may be, is accomplished. 

2. Another caution seems necessary here, i. e., suit- 
able protection. This condition or requisite is too much 
neglected, especially by girls. Their clothing, for in- 
stance, is often insufficient, both as to amount and 
style. First, it should be composed of strong but 
light material, but enough to protect the whole person 
from the chili that, is apt to follow active exercise. If 
any portion of the clothing is removed for convenience, 
it should be replaced as soon as the exercise ceases. 
Secondly, it should be as equally distributed as possible, 
covering the entire arms and chest; and where there 
is danger from exposure to the damp ground, the feet 



192 the art of teaching. 

should be well protected. Numerous evils arise from 
the simple neglect of these two cautions. Colds, 
headache, rheumatism, chills, and sometimes severe 
attacks of dangerous diseases result. Thirdly, the 
style of dress should be such as to allow perfect free- 
dom to all the parts, and especially to the arms and 
chest, siuce they suffer ' most from confinement to 
study. The present fashionable style is at war with 
this principle. It is with the utmost difficulty, that a 
young lady fashionably dressed, can lift her elbows as 
high as her head, without rending some portion of her 
clothing about the waist, especially if the motions are 
violent, as they should be in calisthenics. This is also 
true of the fashionable dress of boys and young men. 
No exercise can be profitable under these circumstan- 
ces. The clothing, therefore, must be loose enough to 
allow freedom of motion and freedom of circulation. 
But enough has been said, the world over, upon the 
follies of fashion, and especially upon the evils of tight- 
lacing, to correct them long since. 

3. The mind must be free from care and anxiety. 
It is of little service to engage in physical exercises 
for the sake of recreation, when the mind is brooding 
over some hidden grief, harassed by care ; or when it 
is absorbed in study. There must be a relaxation. 
All these things must be abandoned for the time be- 
ing; and there should be a delightful play of cheerful- 
ness and animal spirits. The reason for this will be 
apparent upon a moment's reflection. The brain 
needs the rest, and the body and limbs need the ex- 
ercise. The blood should be attracted from the for- 
mer, and invigorated aud vitalized by coming in con- 
tact with [Hire air, and being supplied with whole- 
some eh vie. It then returns, laden with the prin- 



RECREATION. 193 

ciples of life, and the wheels of thought again roll on 
with increased vigor. 

4. There should be an object in view. Hence the supe- 
riority of the games of rivalry ; of the pursuit of game 
in hunting; and of the excursions in pursuit of speci- 
mens in natural history, etc., as described in "physi- 
cal culture. ,? There is excitement enough in connec- 
tion with these to keep up that healthy now of animal 
spirit. In case of a walk or a ramble in the woods, 
it amounts to but little to stroll about without an ob- 
ject, or even with one, if that object is inspired by 
nothing higher than the mere desire to exercise. 
Something exciting is needed to make the mind forget 
its cares, and to revel in the pleasures of the game or 
chase. 

5. Recreation, as a general thing, should be taken in 
pleasant company. "Iron sharpeneth iron; so a man 
sharpeneth the countenance of his friend." It is not 
easy to estimate the value of human sympathy, or the 
power of conversation. They may enter into and 
form a part of nearly all forms of recreation. They 
serve as a medium for the expulsion of gloomy 
thoughts, and for the introduction of pleasant ones. 
Many exercises will not permit a connected conversa- 
tion ; but even in these cases, the pleasanter the com- 
pany the better. The glow of sympathy, the beam- 
ing countenance, the common object and mutual en- 
ergy and aims: — all serve to dissipate care, to invite 
happiness, and to beget a healthy flow of the convivial 
spirit. In the calisthenic exercises, the music and 
song, with which they are usually interspersed, the 
graceful motions of the body, and all the enchantment 
of the various figures and movements, have a ten- 
dency to beguile care and sorrow, to bring into active 

17 



194 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

play all the powers that please and delight the senses 
and the soul. 

When conversation can be carried on, the theme 
should not be too grave or too exciting, or else there 
will be no rest to the mental powers, save that which 
might be experienced from a change of thought. It 
should turn upon pleasant topics, and should be rather 
lively than otherwise, even to the merry jest and the 
hearty laugh: the laugh is particularly valuable. It 
shakes the cobwebs from the brain and inactivity from 
the lungs; it stirs the sleepy tide of the vital stream. 
It is a perfect tonic, and acts with a more desirable 
force upon the liver than a dozen doses of " blue mass. " 

Article 3— Tlic Varieties. 

The various kinds of physical exercises have been 
frequently referred to, in the progress of our investiga- 
tions ; so that at present, it only remains to present a 
classification of those that may be used most advan- 
tageously in the schools. In doing this, we shall not 
attempt an exhaustive list. We prefer to give the 
outline in connection with a description of some of 
the most appropriate and convenient exercises, and 
leave the subject for whatever suggestions and im- 
provements may be made upon it. 

Those that relate particularly to the school, are the 
following. 1. For out-door exercises, innocent and 
active games of rivalry stand perhaps among the first. 
What we mean by innocent is, free from any immoral 
tendencies, such as betting, or any in which the loss 
of property or character is concerned, or any in which 
the evil passions are necessarily aroused — those that 
are free from the contaminating influence of vice. 
What we mean by active games, are those combining 



RECREATION. 195 

the lively exercise of the physical powers, without 
impairing their strength or activity ; not those trilling 
amusements, — such as " marbles, " " pins " or " but- 
ton," nor yet the silly nonsense of "ring around a 
rosy," or " oats, peas, beans and barley grow ! " nor 
those on the other hand, requiring too severe action 
such as violent running or jumping (except as prac- 
ticed in the gymnasium), wrestling or boxing, or any 
tbing that would have a tendency to injure or impair 
the physical powers, or soil, or otherwise damage the 
clothing. 

The following are among some that may be safely 
practiced, provided they arc properly cared for by the 
teacher: 1. Ball, in all the varieties in which it is 
commonly practiced. This is the great play of the 
school, and it is doubtful, whether any other of equal 
merit could supply its place. It is a healthy and 
dignified play, and may be practiced by nearly all 
classes, and in some varieties by girls as well as boys. 

2. Throwing the discus or pitching quoits, rolling or 
playing at ten pins, are remarkably healthful exercises 
for the arms and chest, provided both arms are used ; 
and we see no good reason why they could not. These 
exercises, however, are chiefly confined to the gym- 
nasium, and are considered appropriate only for boys; 
but I see no good reason why girls might not partici- 
pate in some of them, at least. How much better 
this than the perpetual idleness to which they are 
doomed by the hypocritical notions of a fashionable 
world! How ennobling and dignifying when com- 
pared with that insipid nonsense, which constitutes 
too much of their exercises (?) ! What health and 
development of their chests and arms it would give 
them ! The blessings they would thus be enabled to 
36 



196 THE ART OE TEACHING. 

transmit to their posterity, would more than compen- 
sate for any odium that might be heaped upon them 
by bigots and hypocrites. 

3. Skating and coasting are forms of amusement which 
certainly possess many excellencies, though for the 
want of convenient localities they must be circum- 
scribed, so far at least as relates to the school. The first 
is eminently adapted to the wants of both sexes and 
nearly all ages ; and, could it be free from the dangers 
too often connected with it, it might be practiced with 
the best of results. 

4. Pleasure and scientific excursions may be practiced 
in connection with school duties, though not with the 
same regularity that others are. They should be a 
kind of holiday pleasure, to which the pupils may 
look with expectation and delight. See Chapter 
Second. 

5. Calisthenic Exercises. The practical illustration 
of the above named exercises, as practiced in our best 
schools, will occupy the remainder of this chapter. It 
will be found that these exercises furnish a greater 
amount of rational recreation and amusement than all 
others ; and at the same time can be practiced, for the 
most part, in the school-room. 

For the following arrangement, and brief but accu- 
rate description of them, we are indebted to the en- 
terprising teachers of the city of Toledo, Ohio, in 
whose schools the exercises here laid down, are car- 
ried to a high degree of perfection. This system has 
been gathered from a variety of authors, and possesses 
the advantage of being brief yet eminently practical. 
It contains about all that can be practiced with suc- 
cess in the common school and college, and we believe 
may be introduced, in some form, into every school in 



RECREATION. pjj 

the country. As such we most cheerfully commend it 
to teachers and parents. 

The most of the following exercises are arranged for 
a class of sixteen, though many of them may be varied 
for a larger or a smaller number. In forming for 
practice, the misses are always arranged in a circle, 
assuming : 

Standing Position.— Head erect, shoulders thrown 
back, chest forward, hands at the side, and feet at 
an angle of about 60 deg. The circle is divided into 
4 sections ; the 1st in each section being its leader. 
The leader in the 1st section is also the general leader 
in every exercise. The 1st and 3d leaders stand oppo- 
site each other ; the 2d and 4th opposite. The 1-t in 
the circle,and every alternate one, is called No. 1; the 
2d, and every alternate one, No. 2. 

Marching in Circle.— Commence with right foot, 
keep uniform time, step lightly. (Here follows an 
exercise in the March, directed by the teacher.) 

Steps.— Directions for practice.— School Step.— Touch 
first the heel, then the toe of the right foot to the floor, 
at the same time springing on the toe of the left. Re- 
peat with left foot springing on right. This step may 
also be taken advancing or retreating-. 

Spanish Step— Bring left foot in front of the right, 
carrying it to that position in a curve, springing at the 
same time on the right toe; carry it in the same 
manner back to the standing position. Repeat, bring- 
ing the right in front of the left in same manner. 

Triple Spring. — Extend the right foot in front, 
resting on the toe; carry it to the right side, then 
resume the standing position, springing on the left 
foot with each change of the right. Repeat the same 
with the left foot, springing on the right. 



198 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

Quadruple Spring. — Extend r. ft. to r. side, resting 
on toe ; carry it to 1. side beyond 1. foot ; return it to 
r. side, then resume standing position, springing on 1. 
ft. at each change of right. 

Side Step. — Carry r. ft. to r. side, resting weight on 
toe. Bring 1. ft. behind the r., resting on toe. Again 
advance r. ft., etc. 

Promenade Step. — Extend r. if., resting on toe ; bring 
1. foot forward nearly even with right, bearing the 
weight lightly upon the toe, while the r. is again ex- 
tended. Repeat, extending 1. foot first. An easy 
gliding motion is desirable. 

Slight Courtesy. — Extend r. ft. to the side, place the 
left behind the right, sink and then rise. Repeat, ex- 
tending left ft. placing r. ft. behind left. 

Arm Exercises. — With marching step the class pass 
half round the circle ; the 1st leader and her mate pass 
through the center to the head of the circle, followed 
by the others, and form columns, all the No. 1's com- 
ing up on the right hand side of the No. 2's. 

The columns being formed, they separate, by each 
bowing to her partner, leaving a space of about three 
feet between the columns. Then with school step the 
columns advance, meeting in the middle of the space, 
then retreat with the same step. Then to give space 
for arm exercises let the alternate ones of each column 
advance with school step to center of space, thus : 

• • • • 

• • • • 

• • • • 

• ® m • 

1st Ex. — Raise the hands to the top of the head, 
throwing them off with force to the side. 

2d. — Place the backs of the hands under the arms, 



RECREATION. 199 

throw the hands forcibly downward, closing them 
tightly. 

3d. — Place the tips of the fingers upon the shoulders 
in front, throw the arms forward in a straight line, at 
a level with the shoulders. 

4th. — Place ends of fingers upon the shoulders, throw 
the arms to the sides at a level with the shoulders. 

5th. — Place the fingers as before; throw the hands 
upward. 

6th. — Extend the arms in front, with the palms of 
the hands together. Throw them backward, meeting 
the backs of the hands. Each exercise to be repeated 
8 or 12 times, with counting or singing. 

Figures. — 1st. Winding Circle. — The 1st leader pass- 
ing just inside the circle, commences gradually winding 
up to the center, with side step, so that when she has 
reached that point, the form of the figure will re- 
semble a watch spring. Turning, she unwinds, passing 
through the spaces of the previous winding, until a 
perfect circle is formed. Wind up again, the 3d leader 
passing inside the circle, winding and unwinding in 
the same manner. 

Song : " Lightly Row." 

2d. Moving Columns. — The 1st and 3d leaders march 
through the center of the circle, passing each other on 
the right. Each describes an oval figure. They pass 
each other three times, then form a large circle. 

Song : " We roam through forest shades." 

3d. Single Columns. — Form columns as for arm exer- 
cises. The columns being formed, the No. l's pass to 
the right with promenade step, No. 2's to their left 
describing a circle. Meeting, the mates join hands, 
and, continuing the step, pass up to the place where 
the 1st couple stood in the columns. Separate, and 



200 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

pass around as before ; all stop in the columns as at 
first. Pass singly to the left, forming a large circle. 

Song : " Hail Columbia." 

4th. Intertwining Promenade Step. — No. 2's step inside 
circle, facing right side, No. l's facing left side. Mates 
join right hands as they stand ; commence promenade 
step. Each No. 1 joins her left hand with the left hand 
of the next No. 2, so that they pass each other with the 
1st step, reversing their places, No. l's being inside the 
circle, No. 2's outside ; No. l's join hands with the 
next No. 2's, passing her with promenade step, and 
again exchanging places ; continue this until mates 
meet the second time. 

Song: "Harvest Hymn." 

5th. Trio. — Pass about one-third round circle, the 
1st leader stopping on the outside of the circle, forms 
with the next 2 a triangular figure ; all except the last 
4 form similar figure; the 4 stand in the center thus : 

2 1 1 



1 2 

2 2 2 



1 1st leader. 



2 



Lead off into a large circle with side step; the 1st 
leader passing off 1st, while the other circles take the 
side step in their several separate circles, leading off 
in time to keep the line as unbroken as possible. 
Song : " Up the hills ou a bright sunny morn." 
6th. Double Columns. — Pass half round circle, the 
1st leader and mate stopping at the center. The last 
half form half a column in the same way, the 3d leader 
and mate coming up opposite the 1st leader and mate, 
thus : 



RECREATION. 201 



1 z 



1 



6 



Lead oft" with promenade 1 g step, the 1st 

and 3d leaders passing to 1 g their right, 

and their mates to the left. 2 1 

Having described half a 2 1 circle, come 

up as before. Separate 2 1 into two 

2 1 
circles, the 1st half forming one, the second half the 
other. Take the quadruple spring, pass oft' with the 
promenade step, as before. Form the columns the 3d 
time, and pass into a large circle. 

Song : " Bring Flowers." 

7th. Fronting Columns. — Form single columns, sep- 
arating as for arm exercises. No. l's commencing at 
the head of the columns, join hands with their mates 
and pass down through the columns with promenade 
step, then separate, meeting after having passed half 
round circle; go through the center and separate as 
before. Again passing half round circle, the 1st leader 
and mate stop in the place they first occupied in the 
columns. The 2d couple go above the 1st, join hands, 
and pass down between them to their places. Each 
succeeding couple in like manner go above the 1st 
through the columns to their places. Then, 1st leader 
passing down through the columns with side step, each 
in order join hands, and with same step pass into a 
large circle. 

Son£ : " Life on the Ocean Wave." 

8th. The Wreath. — No. 2's step inside the circle, face 
their mates, and, joining hands, take the Spanish step; 
then all facing the center of the circle, the inner circle 
take the side step once around ; the outside circle once 
around, both circles together once. The No. l ? s and 



202 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

No. 2's joining hands in their respective circles, courte- 
sy four times, the fourth time the No. 2's courtesying 
under the arched arms of No. l's. Being thus twined, 
pass once around with side step ; untwine by No. 2's 
courtesying from under the arched arms of No. l's. 
The inner circle pass once around with side step; the 
outside circle once ; both together once. No. 2's face 
their mates and courtesy half round the circle; the 
inner circle then pass once round with side step ; the 
outside circle once ; both together half round. Then 
form large circles, by the No. 2's falling back into the 
outside circle. 

Song: For Spanish side step: "A rosy wreath we 
twine for thee." For courtesying : " What fairy-like 
music." 

9th. The Bower. — Pass half round circle ; the 1st 
leader and her mate stop facing each other, and with 
hands joined elevate them, while the 2d couple pass 
under their arched arms, stopping just above them, 
joining and raising hands in same manner; the 3d and 
4th couples in same manner ; the 3d leader with the 
remainder of the class pass under the arched arms, 
until reaching the head of the columns, then turns to 
the left, leading to the foot of the columns ; then again 
under arched arms to the head of the columns ; then 
turns to the right leading to the foot ; then joining 
hands, they pass with side step to the head of the col- 
umns ; the 1st leader and mate, with each of the 
couples above in order, joining hands and with side 
step pass into a large circle. Wreaths are desirable in 
forming arches, if convenient. 

Song : " When the day with rosy light." 



204 



THE ART OF TEACHING. 



SYNOPSIS VI 



OBJECTS 

AND 
MEANS. 



QUALIFICA- 

, TIONS AND 
REGULA- 
TIONS. 



QUALITIES 
AND 
I METHODS. 



f Order. Authority. Obedience. 
Conservative -j Self-government. Employment. 

I Adjusting and removing temptation. 

f Conviction. Recognition of guilt. 
Reformative. -{ The claims of justice. 

I Punishment. Objects and Methods. 



r Instruction, 
i 
Protective, -j Encouragement. 

I Watchfulness. 



r Self-knowledge. Shrewdness. 
i 
Legislative. -{ Foresight. Penetration, 
i 

I Good common sense. 

f Discrimination. Comprehension. 
Judicial. -j Deliberation. Explicitness. 
[ Firmness without obstinacy. 

r Energy. Promptness 
^ Executive. J Determination without passion. 
[ Generosity. Sympathy. 



r Appearance. Demeanor. 

Personal J Ease and elegance in address. 
Worth. 

t Sociability. Vivacity. Good health. 

C Moderation. Forbearance. 
Self-control. -| Disinterestedness. Earnestness. 
I Confidence without affectation. 



. Gen-'ri. Man 
agement. 



C Fidelity. Integrity. Zeal, 
-j Justice mingled with mercy. 
L Mildness of manner. Severity of purpose 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 205 



CHAPTER VI. 

SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

We now approach one of the most difficult yet 
most important subjects of the whole list of school- 
room duties, viz., Government, or the control and 
management of schools. Much, in a general way, has 
been said upon this subject. This seemed necessary, 
and indeed unavoidable, since the very nature and 
design of " school-room duties" are such as to involve 
the mode in which they should be conducted. 

In the discussion of the subject of government, we 
shall avoid its general characteristics, except so far as 
they relate to the school, and shall endeavor to point 
out a sj^stem of government whose administration 
shall render the school self-governing, and fit its pupils 
for that task, after they become men and women. 

All governments arise from about the same necessi- 
ties, have nearly the same origin, and should have the 
same objects in view, viz., the good of the governed. 
The essential principles of government are the same 
every-where, the distinctions arising more from the 
mode of administration than from any necessary dif- 
ference in the principles themselves. Hence the dif- 
ferent forms of government, such as the monarchy, 
aristocracy, democracy, etc., with their various re- 
straints and modifications. All these forms, doubt- 
less, had their origin in the family, social and com 
mercial relations, and intercourse of the races. 



206 THE AKT OF TEACHING. 

Without stopping to discuss the relative merits of 
these several forms, we remark that the school is an 
association composed of the elements of families, rep- 
resenting the individual interests of each, and expand- 
ing and combining these, so as to meet the wants of 
the community and the State. It therefore represents 
all these departments, and should be so conducted as 
not to interfere with any of them ; but on the other 
hand, it should prepare its subjects for a proper 
appreciation of, and participation in, the duties and 
responsibilities enjoined by these several relations. In 
other words, the school should be the model family, 
the model community, the model State. Therefore, 
whatever objects government has in view, in any re- 
lation in life, these find, at least a similitude in a well 
organized and well conducted school. It should have 
all the sympathies, all the restraints, all the encourage- 
ments, and all the high and noble purposes that ani- 
mate, subdue, and elevate the human powers. It 
should be a place in which is warmed into life every 
principle of intelligence, and every generous impulse 
of the soul : in which every evil passion is subdued, 
and every unholy desire checked. 

In form and administration, the school government 
should, perhaps, resemble, as much as any other, that 
particular kind of monarchy called the patriarchy; 
though it should certainly possess many, and perhaps 
all the restraints to the abuse of power, that are com- 
mon to the best republics. And we might add here, 
that no teacher is prepared to wield this potent instru- 
mentality, unless he has studied well its nature and 
design. 

In presenting the claims of this subject, we shall 
endeavor to follow an order similar to that observed 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 207 

in the other topics; though such is the peculiar nature 
of this, that it will be more convenient to treat 'the 
objects and means of securing them in the same con- 
nection ; and so, in the second place, the qualifications 
and requisites; and lastly, the directions to be observed 
in the administration of government. 

Article 1— Object§ and Means. 

It is a matter of astonishment, as well as regret, that 
so few have a correct understanding, or an adequate 
appreciation of the real objects of government, or of 
the means to be employed to secure them. The mo- 
tives to obedience have been so grossly perverted, the 
incentives to duty have been so essentially weakened, 
and the abuse of power has been so great, that not 
only many false theories have arisen, but the very ex- 
istence of sound family and school government has 
been endangered. The mere matter of control or 
mastery on the one hand, without consulting the 
fitness of the means of securing it, or the uses to 
which it should be devoted when secured; and, on the 
other, the almost total abandonment of such control, 
would be about as true an exposition or outline of 
these two extremes as could be given; while the inter- 
mediate steps have been occupied with many errors 
and many excellencies. Some of these will be pointed 
out as we progress. 

Section 1 — Nature of the Objects. — The objects 
of government, as they relate particularly to the 
school, may, for convenience, be considered in three 
classes, distinguished from each other by their nature 
and office. 1. They are conservative and self-fevpetuat- 
ing ; conservative, in that they maintain universally 



208 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

the same policy, and enforce the same claims and 
obligations; self-perpetuating, in that these claims, 
etc., are produced and reproduced by the necessary 
development of man's innate powers, and are co-exten- 
sive with his present relations : i. e., the power that 
controls arises not only from man's necessary exist- 
ence, but is self-sustaining, since it is itself controlled 
through the agency of perpetual causes, acting and 
reacting, producing and reproducing both themselves 
and their necessities. This will be more apparent as 
the nature of these objects and duties is unfolded. 

Among the first of these conservative objects, and 
one standing high as a means of securing the ultimate 
ends of all government — viz., the universal happiness 
of the governed — is good order. Without this, all 
the secondary objects would fail of accomplishment. 
It stands as a sentinel, truly conservative, and admits 
no fanaticism or discord to reign in the ranks of the 
governed. It is that to which all other objects tend. 
It pre-supposes, in the first place, rightly constituted 
authority ; and, in the second, obedience to that 
authority. All other objects seem to conspire as 
much to produce this, and through this, the happi- 
ness of the governed, as any independent result. It 
becomes emphatically, therefore, both an object of 
government, and the chief medium through which its 
whole machinery is moved, in accomplishing all other 
results. 

We remark, in the next place, that there must be a 
standard of order, and this must be backed by author- 
ity; for of what avail is law or regulations without 
the ability to enforce their claims, in case of any re- 
sistance or disobedience? It is this that adds the 
peculiar dignity to law, and commands that respect 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 209 

which renders it " a terror to evil doers; but the praise 
(and protection) of them that do well." This stand- 
ard becomes a tribunal to which are referred cases of 
difficult adjudication ; and before which all our ideas 
of right and wrong are summoned to testify in the 
struggle which justice and mercy, as advocates, wage, 
in the contest of truth with falsehood : not, however, 
that these advocates contend, the one for the right 
and the other for the wrong ; but the one clamors for 
the blood of the guilty victim, while the other, admit- 
ting equally the guilt of the offender, and the claims 
of the law upon him, yet imerposes its scepter, and 
points to the remedial agents, by which the victim 
may not only be saved but reformed, and yet the claims 
of justice be satisfied. Conscience is the great arbiter in 
this contest, and should be the ruling principle in the 
decisions of justice. The more of this ingredient 
there is mingled with the administration of govern- 
ment, the better. It is the conservator of order, and 
the safeguard of authority. 

This standard also implies obedience, on the part of 
the subject, to the properly constituted authority : and 
the obligations become more or less binding, according 
as the standard approaches perfection. Obedience im- 
plies motives, which should be such as will secure the 
prompt, willing, and even cheerful compliance with 
the behests of authority, without impairing any essen- 
tial principle of independence. This is the ultimate 
object of all obedience; while forcible measures should 
only be employed for the temporary purpose of re- 
moving the obstacles to voluntary submission. The 
different methods that may be resorted to in order to 
secure obedience, will be referred to again in the next 
18. 



210 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

section. They have also been discussed briefly in 
former chapters. 

2. Another object in immediate connection with 
those already named, is that of self-government, or the 
power the individual subject acquires to control his 
own energies. In this will be seen the self-perpetuating 
nature of government. It should be the especial ob- 
ject of the family and school, so to develop the powers 
of the subject, that when the pressure of extraneous 
control (if indeed there is need of any) is removed, he 
shall go on, a self-acting and self-governing agent. This 
is the object which is sadly overlooked, and one to 
which we call special attention. 

It is generally thought sufficient, at least in the 
school, that the child be manageable, or entirely sub- 
missive, while subject to the government, which is 
often so arbitrary and severe as to remove all necessity 
for the exercise of any other power than that of mere 
submission — if indeed, this can be called the exercise 
of any power at all. The labor and consequent ad- 
vantages of such control are transferred from the sub- 
ject that needs them, to the machinery that enforces 
them. Hence, it is not at all surprising that the 
former should languish for the want of them, while 
the latter should be impaired from excessive use. 

It is a well known law of mind as well as of body, 
that the legitimate use of any power strengthens it; and 
that neglect weakens it. Now if these powers of self- 
government are not brought into active service in that 
stage of their growth when they are assuming form and 
character, they are neglected, and consequently weak- 
ened. This is the inevitable result of excessive govern- 
ing, or of that form which takes all responsibility from 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 211 

the hands of the governed and forces submission 
"-nolens volens." Hence, again, that form of govern- 
ment which places the greatest amount of responsibilty 
in the hands of the subject, and only holds him ac- 
countable for the proper use of it, is best adapted to 
the wants of rational and responsible beings. Self- 
government, therefore, is both an object of govern- 
ment and a means of securing and perpetuating its own 
blessings to those who are its subjects. 

It will be seen that one of the most successful meth- 
ods of cultivating the powers of self-government, is to 
afford the individual healthy employment for all his 
powers. Indeed, it is quite certain, that if the proper 
amount and kind of employment were furnished to if 11 
the members of society, not only vice and crime would 
diminish, but man would acquire the power to direct 
his energies to the full accomplishment of the purposes 
of life. We have had frequent occasion to remark, in 
the course of this work, that none of these powers were 
created in vain, — not for idleness, nor yet for mischief 
or for tormentors ; that their chief delight, as well as 
means of growth and sources of power,consists in exer- 
cise, which the} 7 seek as naturally as the plant seeks 
the light and moisture ; and that if left unemployed or 
uncontrolled, the great probability is that they will 
run into mischief or excess. For a description of the 
various kinds of labor and rest, recreation and devo- 
tion, the reader is referred to those sections where 
these topics are treated more at length. 

Another successful mode of cultivating the powers 
of self-control is, by removing temptations, such as are 
likely to prove too strong for resistance, and of ad- 
justing others that must be met; so that their conquest 
by the pupil shall prove a source of power. This is 



212 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

one of the most successful means of culture that can 
be devised, and one that is most shamefully neglected. 
Indeed, in a great many instances a course is pursued 
which produces results exactly the opposite of those 
named in the above. The multiplication of commands 
beyond a reasonable extent, the great majority of 
which stand a better chance to be broken than obeyed, 
instead of removing temptation, and becoming, as per- 
haps they were intended, a means of restraint and a 
bulwark of defense, only add so much to the chances 
of disobedience. They serve as so many traps to en- 
snare the wayward feet of childhood into habits of dis- 
respect and deceit. In the great majority of cases it 
were better not to give commands at all, if the pros- 
pects for disobedience are greater than those of obedi- 
ence; since, in most cases, the sin of disobedience lies 
more in the simple act itself than in any results that 
might follow from the thing's being or not being per- 
formed. The habits of scolding, continual fault-find- 
ing and threatening are also fruitful sources of tempta- 
tion both to stubbornness and to treachery. But these 
subjects have been treated elsewhere. Their appear- 
ance here, however, will readily be accounted for, when 
it is remembered that school government extends to 
every and all departments of the educational processes. 
Again : the associations are a fruitful source of good 
or evil. Bad company is to be deprecated on all occa- 
sions, while the good should be sought. It is scarcely 
possible, under ordinary circumstances, to escape the 
contaminating influences of the one, or to counteract 
entirely the influences of the other; yet there are two 
extremes here worthy of special notice. The first is, 
the practice of exposing children to the influence of 
vice, without first fortifying their minds to repel it; 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 213 

and the other is, the practice of depriving children of 
the associations of the world, for fear they may con- 
tract the evil habits of the world. The two extremes 
are about equally dangerous; and, what seems a little 
paradoxical, lead to precisely the same results. The 
influences and the results of the first course are suffi- 
ciently apparent. The second, however, is worthy ol' 
further notice. 

It is a very common remark, and not without its 
significance and truth, that those children who have, 
for the greater part of their lives, been secluded from 
society for the purpose of shielding them from sin, 
v. hen once exposed to temptation, fall most readily a 
prey to it. The reasons are quite obvious. Never 
having been exposed or tried, their powers of resist- 
ance are weak. Never having conquered, they know 
not the glory of the struggle or of conquest. 

Since children, if they live at all, must live in the 
world, and be exposed sooner or later to the influences 
of vice; since they must, from necessity, meet and 
overcome temptation or be overcome by it; it were far 
better to bring them in contact with those influences, 
under circumstances where they can be assisted and 
defended in case the temptation should prove too 
strong, than to keep them in childish weakness all 
their days. By this we do not mean that they shall 
become wicked that they may learn what wickedness 
is, or that special temptations shall be invented in 
order to try' their strength; but that they shall be 
strengthened and fortified against the encroachments 
of both. 

There are-constantly operating within us, and upon 
us from without, two distinct classes of influences, 
called by one writer the "Passive Impressions, and 



214 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

the Active Principles."* The first includes all the im- 
pressions that are made upon the mind, from influences 
of an objective character; the second, all those inter- 
nal emotions and desires that arise from subjective 
causes. Now, the meeting of these two influences and 
their consequent agreement or disagreement will de- 
termine the character of the result. 

Suppose, in the first place, that the influences or 
passive impressions are bad, such for example, as a 
temptation to evil; and that there is an acquiescence 
on the part of the individual, the active principles 
from within rising up and coalescing with the impres- 
sion from without, the result, in this case, will be bad, 
since the deed itself will be evil, and the power to re- 
sist a like impression the second time, will be weak- 
ened. But suppose the active principle in man, which 
perhaps in this case is only another name for the will 
enlightened by reason and strengthened by conscience, 
rises up and opposes the temptation and overcomes it; 
the result will be a good one, since an evil deed has 
been avoided, a temptation overcome, and consequent 
strength has been developed to resist like encroach- 
ments in future; 'but, as in the first case, the power to 
resist grows weaker and weaker, at each successive 
temptation, until the poor soul loses all power to resist, 
and is led captive at the will of Satan, chained as it 
were, to the wheel of vice, and dragged, it may be an 
unwilling, yet powerless victim in the slavery of sin; 
in the other, at each successive conquest, the power to 
resist grows stronger and stronger; until by and by, 
the man stands up free, emancipated, as it were, from 
the thraldom into which temptation would force him. 



* Joseph John Gurney. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 215 

Hence the injunction to " resist the Devil, and he will 
flee from you," etc. 

But take another case : Suppose the outward impres- 
sion is a good one, and the active principle rises up 
and meets it, as in the first case it did the bad one, the 
result will be good, since the deed itself is good, and 
it is obedience to a demand made by a legitimate de- 
sire. But suppose this good impression is resisted, as 
in the second case, the result then will be its opposite, 
since there are both disobedience to a legitimate de- 
mand, and resistance to good impressions. Under 
these circumstances the individual grows harder and 
harder to impressions, until what moved him once will 
scarcely make an impression now. This will account 
for the indifference and hardness often produced by 
repeated warnings. " He that being often reproved 
hardeneth his neck, shall suddenly be cut off, and that 
without remedy." 

The same principle obtains in all the other cases. 
Take the first, for instance : the first time temptation 
to commit an act of injustice was presented, it created 
perhaps a horror. The first lie, or oath, or theft, or 
transgression of any kind pained the conscience, and 
perhaps brought tears to the eyes ; the second, howev- 
er, produced still less impression, and so on, until by- 
and-by there was little or no compunction of con- 
science. This class of transgressors is aptly described 
by the prophet when he says : " Woe unto them that 
draw iniquity with cords of vanity, and sin as it 
were with a cart rope ;" and again, by the poet, when 
he says : 

" Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
As, to be hated, needs bat to be seen ; 
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
We first endure, then pity, then embrace." 



216 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

We need only allude to drunkenness, cruelty, profan- 
ity, theft, and other kindred vices, of which these are 
but fair representatives, and the several steps by which 
they have bee.i reached can readily be imagined. 

But, take the third and fourth cases alluded to, in 
which the outward impressions are good, and are re- 
sponded to, in the one case, by the active principle of 
good, but repulsed, in the other, by the active principle 
of evil, and what are the results? Suppose a man to 
meet, for the first time in his life, a most distressing 
object of charity, who, stretching out his emaciated 
hands, implores help. The individual thus addressed 
feels his compassion move toward the sufferer, and he 
obeys the impression from without, and the impulse 
from within. The suffering is relieved, and both the 
giver and the receiver rejoice together. Kow, in this 
case the principle of benevolence has been exercised and 
strengthened ; and, as a natural result, the next object 
of suffering is met in a still more welcome manner, 
and soon liberality becomes a fixed principle ; the more 
a person gives, the more delight he experiences in giving, 
and his beneficence is only limited by his means. The 
same is true of good impressions from any other quarter. 

But suppose, when the first appeal is made to the 
individual, that he closes his eyes to suffering and his 
hand against giving; that he shuts up his compassion 
and refuses to listen to the pleadings of mercy from 
without, or to respond to the call of conscience from 
within — what will be the result? In the first place, 
suffering will not be relieved ; and in the second, his 
own heart will be hardened. The next case of suffer- 
ing will be met with less emotion, and so on, until 
finally the needy will be repulsed with scorn or indif- 
ference ; or the only effect will be to make the miser 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 217 

clutch his gcM more tightly, and to steel his heart more 
effectually against all generous impulses ; and thus it 
is with all good impressions, from whatever quarter. 
As paradoxical as it may seem, the same outward in- 
fluences that have a tendency, when obeyed, to make 
a benevolent man, will, when repelled, have a tendency 
to make a miser. The same that develop the Christian 
graces, and establish a man's moral principles, if not 
received in a proper spirit, will harden him against im- 
pressions of good, and confirm him in iniquity and 
crime. 

Now these principles have a direct bearing in the 
government and education of children. There are 
four cases, which may be briefly recapitulated thus : 
first, the impression in itself may be evil and the re- 
sult evil; second, the impression may be evil and the 
result good; third, the impression maybe good and 
the result good ; fourth, the impression good and the 
result bad; and all of the influences and results are, to 
a great extent, put within the reach of parents and 
teachers, or of the government. Therefore, let the 
temptations be so adjusted that the power that is 
within the child may resist them ; and let the positive 
good from without be so presented as not to annoy or 
harden the subject, but " to produce the peaceable 
fruits of righteousness in them that are exercised 
thereby." 

Section 2 — Government, Reformative. — Thus far 
the objects and means of Government have been con- 
sidered as they relate to society in nearly a normal 
condition : or, the conservative and self-perpetuating 
objects have been considered. But society is often de- 
ranged, and its members need reforming. There are 
19 



218 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

offenses and offenders. It is sate to conclude this of 
all stages and forms of association composed of fallible 
beings. This of course will include the family and the 
school. "It must needs be that offenses come," and 
consequently there will be offenders, in this corrupt 
state of things ; and perhaps this will always continue, 
so long as society is composed of the same or even sim- 
ilar elements. 

Now, government holds some relation to these of- 
fenses and these offenders. It can not avoid them so 
long as they compose a part of the body politic; nor 
can it look with indifference upon this new state of 
things. Indeed, it regards offenders with a peculiar 
interest. The mutual claims of government, and of 
those under its control, when they depart from their 
integrity or violate their obligations, it shall be our 
present business to investigate in connection with the 
administration of that kind of control, calculated to 
produce the objects heretofore discussed. 

And first, we remark, since government is com- 
pelled to deal with culprits, and since these, in many 
instances, are susceptible of reformation, therefore it 
should be reformative. It should reach down, but not 
in a vindictive spirit, to those of its subjects that have 
been unfortunate, and bring them up, if possible, and 
reinstate them, so that its claims upon them shall be 
the same as upon those who have not fallen. This 
function of government is manifestly neglected, both 
in public and in private associations. Those who have 
offended have too often been looked upon more as 
enemies of the commonwealth, lost to the claims of 
sympathy, and against whom the government hurls its 
bolts of vengeance, than as subjects entitled, if not to 
equal confidence, at least to its pity and extra atten- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 219 

Jion. Punishment is dealt out with an unsparing 
Maud, too often with no other ohject in view than 
merely to gratify a selfish motive, or at most, the de- 
mands of justice; when, in fact, the culprit as a mem- 
ber of society, and society itself, have as great demands 
upon justice as justice has upon its victim; and these 
entirely harmonize. Justice demands the satisfaction 
of a violated law, while society and the offender him- 
self are not less urgent in their demands for the 
reformation of the latter at the hands of justice, as a 
matter of safety to the body politic. 

The means by which offenders may be reformed will 
next claim attention. First, we remark, they must be 
convinced of wrong as an initiatory step. There can 
be no reformation from a point where there is no rec- 
ognition of guilt. The culprit must first feel the 
weight, the nature, the tendency of the offense, before 
he can truly take a step toward reformation. The 
government and justice owe him this information. 
Hence the municipal law punishes no man unheard, 
or uninformed as to the nature of his offense. It 
labors even more earnestly to convict him than it does 
to punish him. In this it proves its sincerity for his 
reformation. In this it takes the most direct course 
to induce repentance — the first step of reformation. 

Now this should be the course pursued in schools. 
]STo step should be taken, no policy adopted toward 
offenders, in which they may not recognize the benev- 
olent intentions of government. For instance, a wrong 
has been committed; authority has been trampled 
upon; the integrity of the body politic has been 
wounded, and it suffers in consequence. The culprit 
himself, as -a part of this body, is a principal sufferer. 
His '-eformation, therefore, is demanded by every claim 



220 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

of every claimant in that body. Now agencies must 
be employed for restoration ; and it is clear, that if the 
offender be in the path of the agencies thus employed 
for healing the breach, or settling the claim, they will 
operate upon him, of course. And if these agencies, 
which have the double object, the satisfaction of the 
law and his reformation in view, demand his punish- 
ment as the safest and most direct means of securing 
both these objects, of course he must submit, not only 
as a matter of policy, which by the way is an urgent 
one, but of necessity, arising out of the claims of jus- 
tice. This punishment, however, should have nothing 
but the most benevolent designs in view, and should 
be varied to suit the nature of the cases. 

This brings us to the most peculiar and most diffi- 
cult part of the subject, viz., the kinds of punishment, 
and the mode of administering it. Without attempt- 
ing to discuss the merits of the several kinds, we might 
be allowed the general remark, that for ordinary cases, 
or where the powers have not been so impaired, or are 
so defective in their natural capacity, as to be beyond 
the reach of restoration from natural penalties, the 
reformation may be wrought, and the claims of justice 
equally satisfied by what are called purely moral 
means. For instance, if the child disobey, he should 
suffer the natural consequences of such disobedience, 
whatever they may be, so far at least as they would 
go to reform him. If he fail to get a lesson, which 
indeed would be, in common with almost all offenses, 
a species of disobedience, the natural penalty w r ould 
be either the loss of it, or the additional labor and in- 
convenience consequent upon such a course. If he 
lose his book or property, he, of course, ought to 
suffer the loss ; so, if he squander his time in idleness, 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 221 

or deface or destroy his desk or clothing, or do any 
thing of this nature, he should be made to feel the 
loss and suffer the consequent inconvenience until he 
can realize the immediate relations of cause and effect. 
Or, if he encroach upon the rights, person or property 
of another in any way, the inconvenience and punish- 
ment that his treatment would cause in others who are 
subjected to them, should, as far as possible, be visited 
upon himself. 

In the great majority of these and kindred offenses, 
in addition to the natural penalties, t"he offender lays 
himself under an obligation to the authorities and 
"powers that be," similar, in many respects, to that 
which the debtor owes the creditor. The offender be- 
comes amenable to the offended powers; and it is his 
business, when notified of the same, to render his 
account, and cancel its claims as soon as possible. W, 
however, after the lapse of a reasonable time, he fail 
to discharge this obligation, the debt will increase; 
and if he await a prosecution, he ought surely not to 
complain, if he have to pay the cost of such a proc- 
ess. A good plan, therefore, in case of short-comings 
of this character, is to notify the offender of his in- 
debtedness and of his obligations to discharge such 
indebtedness; to give him an opportunity to seek a 
reconciliation, even to demand tins at his hands. This 
will bring him in such a relation to the government 
that it can treat with him on more honorable terms. 
This will throw the responsibility where it belongs, 
and will relieve the teacher from the disagreeable task 
of hunting up offenses, or evidences against them. It 
will also be humiliating to the offender, and will con- 
stitute no small share of his punishment. 

And superadded to all of these forms of punish- 



222 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

ment of a purely moral nature, which should be va- 
ried to suit the individual cases, is the loss, on the part 
of the offender, of the usual privileges of the school, 
until satisfaction is rendered, and a reconciliation ef- 
fected. This course may be taken with a great many. 
It will both deepen their convictions, and hasten their 
return. It will become effective in proportion to the 
strength of the attachments, and the agreeableness of 
these privileges. But above all and more than all, the 
loss of the little attentions, the extra exercises, the 
smiles and approbation of the teacher or parent, which 
will be severe in proportion to his power and influence, 
may be a keener punishment than all the flogging 
that could, under ordinary circumstances, be admin- 
istered ; and certainly, in cases of this description, it 
is more in accordance with sound philosophy. Even 
some of the most aggravated offenses, can most read- 
ily be punished and corrected in this manner; for its 
severity on a sensitive mind, will almost always be in 
proportion to the enormity of the offense committed. 
But if the courtesy of self-reporting on the part of 
the offender is withheld; and if these offenses, or any 
others are habitual ; if the complaint is a deep-seated 
one ; it may require some more severe remedy. All 
cases are not alike. In the first place the offenses 
themselves are diverse both in motive and in enormity; 
and in the second place the offenders are unlike as to 
age and susceptibility of reformation. But all of- 
fenses are evidences of disease, either chronic or acute, 
and all offenders are invalids varying in degrees of 
weakness and persistence, according to the nature, 
origin and standing of the disorder ; and it is no more 
rational to conclude that the same kind of treatment 
or punishment' will reform every case, than that the 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 223 

same kind of medicine will cure all diseases. It is 
not, however, beyond the memory of some of the 
present generation, when about the only remedy for 
the prevailing disorders of the body, was bleeding 
and purging. Bat this species of barbarism has been 
supplanted by a more enlightened policy in the prac- 
tice of medicine. Would that a similar one in refer- 
ence to the treatment of mental disorders had shared 
a similar fate ! 

The two cases alluded to are strikingly analogous. 
For one patient, it might be necessary to amputate a 
limb, or to resort to severe remedies, to reduce the 
system in order to arrest the disease ; for others it 
would only be necessary to counteract the influences 
producing disorder, or to aid the powers to free them- 
selves from the burden, and the recovery is equally 
certain. So in relation to the nature and office of 
punishment as a reformatory measure. For one it 
might be necessary to resort to severe remedies, to 
amputate and reduce; for others, the milder means 
and precautionary measures would be equally effective. 

A great deal of late has been said about the kinds 
of punishment, and the mode of administering it ; 
and indeed there is room for much to be said. Per- 
haps no practice in connection with school govern- 
ment has been subject to the same or to an equal amount 
of abuse. Corporeal punishment seems to be the feat- 
ure attracting the greatest attention, and the form, 
against which, the chief objections are urged; and, 
as it is usually administered, it is certainly one of the 
most objectionable. But some, looking only upon the 
enormities practiced, have not been sparing in their 
denunciations against the whole system. Others 
scarcely less philosophical, have entirely mistaken the 



224 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

spirit and mode of administration in which its effi- 
ciency lies. Hence they have taken the abuse, to 
judge by it the legitimate use. This is manifestly 
unfair; for upon the same principle, scarcely a 
single practice in the whole process of education 
would escape condemnation. Recitation itself would 
be condemned on the same ground ; yet who would 
think of abandoning it, because forsooth some bungler 
had made a bad use of it? We believe, therefore, 
that this kind of punishment has its legitimate use; 
and, as a strictly reformative measure, for certain cases, 
it has scarcely an equal, and surely no substitute, it 
Rm not be dispensed with in the present state of so- 
ciety, and in no state surely, so long as there are gross 
offenders to be reformed, any more than the use of 
medicine can be, so long as diseases of a violent 
nature exist. 

In speaking of the modes of corporeal punishment, 
we select one, viz., punishment with the rod, as about 
the only kind not objectionable p n r se; and we shall en- 
deavor to show that the objections arise entirely from 
its abuse. Indeed its use has been grossly perverted ; 
and instead of its being a reformative measure, it is 
rather a vindictive one. For instance: an offense is 
committed, or a series of offenses, whereby the teacher's 
anger is aroused, or his patience exhausted. He falls 
upon the offender and beats him unmercifully, or until 
he thinks (if he think at all during the operation) 
that he has given about enough ; or until his own 
feelings of revenge have pretty well subsided, when 
he sends him to his seat with something like the fol- 
lowing taunts and threats: "There now! I told you 
if you did not behave yourself, you would catch it! 
Now you have got it ! Go to your seat, you villain ! 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 225 

and if you ever do so again, I will give yon ten times 
as much more! " And he does go to his seat ; but is 
he reformed ? No more than the tiger is, scourged 
within his prison bars. If that child be not a coward, 
or a Christian (not that these characters are the same), 
he goes cursing that teacher (?) for his meanness. 
And it is mean ! It is cowardly to treat a boy so ! for, 
if he wanted to fight, why did he not select one of his 
own size and strength, and not vent his spleen upon 
one unable to defend himself? 

Now this is only a fair representation of what takes 
place in at least one half of the cases of whipping, 
as it is commonly practiced. It is nothing more, so 
far as the principle is concerned, than a street tight, 
with this difference, perhaps, in favor of the latter, 
that the combatants in the last case are usually more 
equally matched. No wonder that whipping has re- 
ceived a bad name ! No wonder that shortsighted 
philanthropists have condemned it, and sought to re- 
move it altogether ! 

There are other modes of administering this kind 
of punishment, which ought to be noticed. Suppose 
an* offense, as in the first case. Instead of consulting 
the circumstances and the nature of the offender, the 
punishment is administered, so many strokes for so 
much offense: and the culprit goes to his seat, relieved 
for the time being; for he has bought an indulgence and 
vaid for it. He has paid all the penalties and has a 
clear balance in his favor, for the next half dozen of- 
fenses, at least, when another settlement may be ex- 
pected. Now there is no reformation* here either. It 
is only a bargain and sale affair, a hardening process, 
by which, I doubt not, many have been whipped into 



226 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

penitentiaries, oV perhaps the last penalty has, or will 
he expiated upon the scaffold. 

Again: Some children, when whipped, have the 
faculty of making a great noise, and loud professions 
of reformation ; but it is soon forgotten : or it may be, 
the noise is only for effect, by wdiich the teacher is 
deceived; and the pupil goes to his seat, congratu- 
lating himself upon his fortunate escape. Others, dif- 
ferently constituted, and perhaps having more hon- 
esty and principle, arc in danger of excesses from an 
opposite direction ; and others again, both guilty and 
gnnoeent, are punished in less objectionable modes; 
and yet there is no recognition of guilt, no repentance, 
no reformation. The whole object seems to be too 
much either to give vent to angry feelings, to pay the 
penalty of the law, to maintain authority by force, or 
to seek the shortest way to enforce present obedience, 
ivithout either consulting the nature of offenses and 
offenders, or the demands these have upon justice for 
reformation. But this objectionable use of punish- 
ment is only accidental; and no more necessary than 
war or murder is a necessity arising from the exist- 
ence of firearms, — or than cruelty and oppression are 
necessary, from the existence of human power and 
skill. 

The questions now arise, can punishment with the 
rod be free from these objections? Is there not some- 
thing connected with it, necessarily calculated to 
arouse the evil passions? We answer most unhesi- 
tatingly, No, not necessarily ; and will hereafter ex- 
plain. But, does it not degrade both teacher and 
pupil? Does there not a great deal of evil grow out 
of it? And in view of this fact, ought it not to be 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 227 

abandoned altogether? To the last question, we re- 
ply as to the first ; but to the two preceding it, we as 
unhesitatingly answer, Yes, when the punishment is 
accompanied by any of the evil passions; and here 
is the place where distinctions and discriminations 
should be made. When any anger exists in the teach- 
er's heart, while administering punishment, it will 
nost likely arouse anger in the pupil's heart; if re- 
venge, revenge; if hatred, hatred, or some corres- 
ponding feelings ; for like begets its like every-where. 
But observe : none of these j>assions should have any 
thing to do with teaching, much less with ivhipping,jone' 
of the most difficult duties the teacher is ever called 
upon to perform. Those who oppose the use of the 
rod altogether, seem to overlook its legitimate use and 
predicate their objections entirely upon its abuse. 
Their arguments are therefore all admitted; but they 
do not tend to establish any objection against its 
proper use. They seem to think that before a person 
can whip, he must first have his feelings wrought up to 
what we may denominate the "whipping point;" and 
that angry passions must necessarily be aroused in the 
pupil. Now this last may be the result in many cases ; 
but mark, these passions are to be subdued. It is 
similar in eftect to the removal of a cancer or a tumor 
from the body. It may cause present pain, and all its 
angry humors may be goaded to madness ; but the op- 
eration goes on nevertheless, until the offending por- 
tion is removed, when the parts may be healed. So 
with these passions. They may rage for a time like 
a tempest, but the opposite feelings accompanied 
by the proper use of means, will generally conquer 
them. 

But it may be further asked, " How can the teacher 



228 TJIK ART OF TEACHING. 

manifest these amiable feelings on all occasions, and 
especially upon this most trying one ? " My friends, is 
there any occasion for the exercise of nnamiable feel- 
ings, under any circumstances? If so, then it is barely 
possible that they may, with propriety, be manifested 
here. "But how can the teacher love those who are 
unlovely?" He may not love them with the love of 
approbation, or even of complacency ; but with the 
love of pity and tender sympathy for their suffering. 
Again : how can he smite the object of his love and 
pity, or hold back his hand from vengeance, when 
provoked? Ah! that's the point! Here is where 
human nature is weak. Here is where passion and 
impulse get the better of judgment and reason ; and 
no wonder that evil rather than good is the result. It 
is always so. 

The question again recurs: Is it possible for the 
teacher to whip without first feeling these angry or 
revengeful passions,- or arousing them by the opera- 
tion ? We answer by asking, Can he not strike a blow 
upon his desk without anger? Then why not upon 
the scholar, if he have a great and good object in 
view? Can he not smite with the same candor and 
earnest desire to do good that actuated him while 
reading the morning lesson from the Bible? Can he 
not inflict pain, and still pray? Can he not punish 
and pity at the same time? Can he not love, and 
lament the necessity that calls for suffering? If he 
can not, then he ought not to teach, much less to punish. 
He should never lay hands upon that fearful instru- 
ment, the rod of correction, until he can first lay hands 
upon his heart, and say, " God, I do this to glorify 
thy name." " I do it to reform this pupil, and to 
bring him nearer to thee:." Let him do this, and there 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 229 

will be little danger of excess. Let him do it, and 
half the punishment will accomplish the desired end. 

This is asking no more of the teacher than we re- 
quire of the surgeon. But suppose the latter should 
hesitate and say, " I can not perform this operation now, 
because I do not feel mad enough;" or stop in the 
middle of the operation, because, forsooth, the patient 
cries. We would call him fool or faint-heart. Sup- 
pose, on the other hand, at every stroke he should 
grow more and more angry and vindictive, and should' 
use threats and taunts, instead of words of comfort 
and encouragement ; or suppose he should leave the 
patient bleeding and perishing from the wounds he 
had inflicted, we would call him a savage or a brute. 
And yet, teachers who object to the use of the rod, 
because some have abused it, must perceive that their 
arguments against corporeal punishment are subject to 
similar criticism ; and that the same conclusions can 
be drawn from their objections to tbe rod, as would 
here be urged against surgery. 

Again, it may be asked, how can physical punish- 
ment be made a reformative instrument? How can 
bodily suffering affect the mind and heart for good ? 
We answer, Does it not? Is not bodily affliction one 
of the strongest instruments of correction and refor- 
mation, that is used by the Almighty himself? All 
philosophy and experience, as well as human and 
Divine law, recognize this, though an extreme, yet 
an effective agent in carrying out the ends of govern- 
ment. 

There are at least three classes of appeals that may 
be made use of for correcting the irregularities of our 
nature, and reforming offenders: First, the purely 
moral; Second, the intellectual and moral; Third, 



230 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

these two combined and aided by physical force. The 
efficiency of these appeals is in direct ratio to the 
number of faculties addressed, and the potency of the 
means employed. The two classes acting in concert, 
are stronger than one; and all three, for extreme cases, 
than either the one or two. The first two have been de- 
scribed briefly. We propose now to speak of all three 
of these forces combined, as a governmental measure, 
keeping in view, all the time, the reformation of 
offenders, the prevention of crime by others, and the 
vindication of authority. In investigating this sub- 
ject, however, it will not do to be guided by any pre- 
conceived opinions or practices. The principles, as 
they reveal themselves, will urge their own conclu- 
sions, which the student will not fail to recognize. 

1. We should not separate these forces or appeals. 
In all such cases as may demand them, they should 
act as a unit. It may not be necessary, however, to 
employ all of them in the same case as has been in- 
timated. They should be regulated according to the 
nature and persistence of the offenses. But the mo- 
ment the higher forces or appeals cease to act, just so 
soon, and in the same ratio, is the effective force 
weakened. This is necessarily so. It is just like a 
human being endowed with all his powers in full play. 
His mind and moral force constitute his chief means 
of effective strength. Superadded to these he has 
physical force. There are some duties in life requi ring- 
little or no physical strength. Again, a person may 
be deprived of the power to act physically, and yet 
the mental force be unimpaired. But not so with the 
loss of mind. That gone, and all is gone. On extra 
occasions, therefore, and indeed, to a great extent, in 
the majority of instances in life, the mind calls to its 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 231 

aid the physical man ; and when all of these agents 
put forth their greatest strength, in harmony and in 
a good cause, it is then that man exhibits one of 
the sublimest spectacles in the moral universe. Just 
so in relation to these appeals, and their mode of ap- 
plication. The purely moral and intellectual, as they 
have been described, are the great motors and regula- 
tors, by which the wheels of government are to he 
moved. They will be adequate to the demand in the 
great majority of cases ; but when a disorder arises 
that demands additional force, then these moral forces 
may call to their aid — mark, not as principal agents, 
but merely as auxiliary — the physical powers; and 
When the moral feelings of the offender can not be 
reached by the mere moral force, as implied in the 
above, then according to the same reasoning, these 
feelings can more easily be moved by the combined 
action of the two, or of the three. But there must 
be no separation. The moral and intellectual powers 
must lead. They should act even with additional 
energy, when they call to their assistance the other 
forces. 

The chief reason why whipping in school and every 
where else, is productive of so much mischief, is be- 
cause when the teacher or parent takes up the rod, he 
lays down common-sense, self-control, judgment and 
his moral powers. He is thus shorn of his chief 
strength ; and what other results can we reasonably 
expect than those complained of? It is not an un- 
common thing to hear teachers talk much about 
moral suasion as antagonistic to physical force, and 
as if it could not be used in connection with other 
means. The very strongest moral suasion can be ex- 
erted in connection with physical force and physical 



232 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

suffering. The two are by no means incompatible. 
If they were, then no moral effect could be produced 
by physical forces, or vice versa. They harmonize in 
every particular when properly used. There is there- 
fore, as much moral suasion in a switch, judiciously 
applied, as in a sermon preached from the housetops ; 
and for its specific purposes, it may be doubly ef- 
fective. 

^N"ow, the whole matter is reduced simply to this : 
one human being may operate upon another for his 
good. The latter, of course, is susceptible to a great- 
er or less degree. If his moral sensibility is easily 
affected, then the moral force may produce the result. 
In case the sensibilities have become somewhat blun- 
ted, or hard to operate upon, then the moral power 
may call to its aid the intellectual forces in the form 
of superior judgment and skill in management, which 
are from necessity variously employed throughout. 
But if these fail, as fail they must, if the resistance to 
be overcome is greater than the force employed to 
move it ; if the avenues leading to the affections and 
will of the child are all closed, and no impressions 
can be made through them ; these appeals must neces- 
sarily fail. But still there is one more resort left, the 
most powerful in all respects for the purposes in hand, 
the united force of man's moral,- intellectual and phys- 
ical powers, a concentration and harmonious action 
of all his energies to produce a given result, viz., the 
reformation of offenders and the vindication of the 
demands of justice. And on the part of the offender, 
the operation of these forces are equally philosophical. 
If, as in the case supposed, the moral and intellectual 
susceptibilities, the avenues to the heart and mind are 
closed to whatever forces the teacher has at command. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 233 

there is yet one more chance, provided the nervous 
sensibility is complete. There is fortunately and 
designedly a close connection between the bodily sen- 
sibilities, and the mental and moral. The intellect, the 
sensibility and the will are all more or less affected by 
any suffering that may be inflicted upon the nervous 
sensibility; and if, when the suffering is inflicted, 
there is a clear apprehension on the part of the suffer- 
er, as to its intent, and if it be administered in a 
proper spirit and in a proper quantity, it follows, from 
the conclusions heretofore reached, that unless the 
subject of such punishment is beyond the reach of 
reformation, these means may and will reclaim him. 
This brings us to consider the particular mode of 
applying the punishment, and the extent. This is an 
important item, one which may decide the whole thing 
for good or ill. We desire, therefore, to be explicit 
upon this point, for it is a mostdiffi *nlt one, — more so 
than either study or recitation ; and, as in those duties 
there is both a science and an art, so in this. The 
first we have briefly sketched. The second involves 
the particular questions, where, or upon what part of 
the body? under what circumstances? with what? 
and how the strokes should be applied ? We answer, 
in reference to the first, that upon the back, shoulders 
and lower extremities, since there is less danger of sus- 
taining injury from the infliction of severe blows upon 
those parts ; but never upon the hands, head or face, 
or any other place where it would injure the person, or 
offer any indignities. The clothing upon those parts 
should not be so abundant as to demand heavy blows, 
or injury might result from that quarter. Hence por- 
tions of it might be removed, under certain circum- 
stances, and its thickness tested before the operation 
20 



234 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

commences. This will also serve to convince the of- 
fender that you are really laboring for his benefit. The 
teacher should know and fully appreciate the nature 
of the duty in which he is about to engage ; hence 
great caution should be exercised in the beginning. 

To the second question, viz., "Under what circum- 
stances, whether in public or in private," we answer, 
that when the vice is an individual or private one, and 
when a simple reformation from such vice is the main 
object, then a private punishment will be most effect- 
ive; since the child will have less to contend with in 
this fearful struggle of passion with the moral powers : 
the opposing forces of an external character will be 
measurably removed, and he will more readily yield. 
But where the example is necessary, or where the of- 
fense has been mainly of a public character, or where 
the breach of the law is greater than the breach in the 
individual — both of which should be healed — or where 
the claims of justice are paramount to those of ref- 
ormation, or where a greater good can be effected 
both with the individual and the body politic, — under 
such and similar circumstances, a public chastisement 
may be inflicted, keeping the same objects in view as 
heretofore described. I can also conceive of cases in 
which the parties alone concerned, i. e., the injuring 
and injured, should be present; but these cases are 
rare. 

With reference to the third, we answer, the instru- 
ment should be a switch. Not a pole, nor a club, nor 
a paddle, but a light switch : one with which you 
would not be likely to injure the muscle or bone. The 
chastisement should be confined to the surface. There 
perhaps is not a case within the reach of reformation 
so hardened as not to be reached without going below 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 235 

the surface. A ferule is a bad instrument of punish- 
ment, since there is great danger of bruising the hand 
or the parts where it is applied ; and this is true of al- 
most every other instrument except the rod, which is 
the simplest, cheapest, safest, most convenient, and the 
best every way. 

The fourth question, "How?" would involve the 
irequency, severity, and number of blows. All these 
points should be understood by the teacher. He 
should study them just as carefully and accurately as 
lie does his lessons and propositions. Indeed, a mis- 
take here is more disastrous than any that might be 
committed in arithmetic or grammar. We remark, 
therefore, as to frequency, that the blows should not be 
repeated oftener than about once in a half minute ; and 
for some purposes the intervals might even be pro- 
longed beyond this time : first, because the child wants 
time for reflection between the strokes ; secondly, he 
wants time to reap all the benefit of one before another 
is ^iven. In this way, about one tenth the number of 
strokes will suffice, since every one expends all its 
force before another is given ; one is not lost or par- 
alyzed in the pain of another; thirdly, because there is 
less danger of arousing the passions of either teacher 
or pupil. The former shows that he governs himself, 
and this of itself removes more than one-half of the 
indignity from the practice. Let him strike half-min- 
ute or minute strokes, and he will feel no anger, but 
rather pity and love ; fourthly, because he then can wit- 
ness and measure the extent of suffering, and mark its 
effects ; fifthly, because it offers time for admonition and 
expostulation, which will frequently be necessary, ana 
will do as much or more good than the bodily pain. 



236 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

It will be mingling the moral and the physical forces 
together in due proportions. 

There is a very remarkable incident recorded of an 
English horseman, which is to the point here. A cer- 
tain nobleman came in possession of a remarkably tine 
horse; but unfortunately he possessed one bad habit 
that rendered him almost useless. He would stop 
while under the saddle, and no whipping or coaxing, 
or driving, would induce him to move. After every 
expedient seemed to be exhausted in efforts to conquer 
him, a celebrated horseman offered his services and 
was accepted. The animal was suitably caparisoned 
and brought out for trial. The cavalier approached 
him with an air of confidence and indifference, paying 
little or no attention to his eccentricities. He finally 
mounted him, when the horse started off a few paces, 
but soon stopped short, as was his custom. Without 
manifesting any unusual concern, the rider gave him 
the usual token to move forward. But no; he confi- 
dently affirmed (in his way) that he would not. The 
man, after giving him time to reflect a little upon his 
conduct, slowly, but deliberately and determinately 
descended from the saddle, and, stepping to his head, 
took a firm and decided hold upon the bridle; and 
after the necessary adjustment he gave him one severe 
blow with a weapon prepared for the occasion. He 
ceased. The horse was chafed and angered, no doubt; 
but, to his disappointment, the man did not repeat the 
blow. He expected a showier of them, mingled with 
curses, doubtless, or that he was about to be flogged as 
usual, and consequently had prepared himself to re- 
sist it. But the horseman leisurely resumed his seat 
in the saddle, and requested him to go, as before; but 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 237 

no, be would scarcely move. He again descended, and 
repeated the blow with additional force and coolness. 
The horse was astonished and confounded at such 
strange and philosophic treatment; and began to show 
evident signs of changing his policy. The man gave 
him ample time to determine upon his course, when 
lie again placed himself in the saddle, and gave him 
the sign for going forward. There was evident hesi- 
tation and trepidation, which showed that the point 
was nearly won. He was evidently unprepared to 
resist such treatment, and his inclinations were bal- 
ancing as it were between two points. This was the 
time to take advantage of the indecision and turn the 
sca l e — to give the finishing stroke. The horseman 
slowly descended the third time; and with an intre- 
pidity and coolness that entirely outwitted the animal, 
he gave him such a stunning blow that it made every 
nerve tingle and every muscle start. The horse fairly 
leaped from the ground. His anger and stubbornness 
were all gone; and no sooner had he an opportunity,' 
than he manifested the most entire obedience and will- 
ingness to go when and wherever his master desired 
him. He was thoroughly and completely conquered 
with those three philosophic blows; and it. is related 
that he never returned to his old practices.* 

Now what conquered him, the blows, or the good 
sense? Doubtless, both; but the blows never would 
have accomplished it without the good sense, nor the 
good sense without the blows. I suppose the horse 
had been whipped ten times more severely, and per- 
haps a hundred times as much, many times before 

* The above is related from rnemorj', and may not correspond in all 
the minutire of the incident, as recorded in the account, but the main 
features are about the same. 



238 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

but all to no purpose, simply because it had not been 
administered in a proper manner: and I venture to 
say, that nearly all the very hardest cases in our 
schools, if treated in as sensible a manner, might be 
reformed by one half the punishment endured by this 
horse. This is but a single case, it is true; but we 
have others on record, both of men and horses, equally 
remarkable ; and I have no doubt that the secret 
of success attending the remarkable feats of subduing 
wild and unruly horses and other animals by the re- 
nowned Barey, lies in the good sense and severe mild- 
ness (if we may be allowed that expression) of the 
treatment. 

The severity of the blows must be regulated entirely 
by the temperament of the child, the deep-seatedness 
of the disease, and the objects to be accomplished ; 
which last should be the entire reformation of the 
offender. In most cases where whipping becomes 
necessary, the blows should produce acute pain, for 
the moment. They should not be trifling nor trifled 
with, by any means; and they should rather increase 
than diminish in severity, until the turning point is 
reached. 

The time of one operation should perhaps not be 
prolonged beyond ten or fifteen minutes (not all con- 
sumed, however, in administering blows), at one time, 
but may be resumed from day to day, until the re- 
formation point is reached. It will be found, however, 
that three or four strokes, or a half-dozen at most, thus 
delivered, will usually produce the required results; 
simply because reason, judgment, good sense, sym- 
pathy, pity, love, suffering, justice, mercy, tears and 
prayers, instead of angry curses and vindictive rage, 
are all combined; and it must be a desperate case in- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 239 

deed that can resist all of these. Now let us compare 
the brutal beating, and trifling mismanagement, and 
retaliating process described in another place with this, 
and decide which is preferable, which will be most 
likely to produce the reformation ? Or, should we pre- 
fer the coaxing and hiring process, and the covering- 
up of the corruptions of the heart, to good sound 
healthy punishment and reformation ? 

Now understand: if we can rule by love, we should 
do so by all means. But if that is not strong enough, 
w T e should strengthen it by other forces. We should 
bring to our aid every earthly device of an intellectual 
nature, not inconsistent with moral force; but if these 
all fail, we are inexcusable if we do not call to our 
aid whatever other forces God has placed within our 
reach. Remember, we have the destiny of immortal 
beings placed, to a great extent, in our hands. It is 
not for us therefore to consult our own ease or con- 
venience, or to be influenced either by prejudice or 
preconceived notions with regard to punishment. We 
must do right, or God will judge us. Justice will meet 
us, and perhaps ruined souls that we might have 
saved, will haunt us, for not doing our duty. We 
should therefore examine the subject carefully, and 
not be led astray by false philosophy or shallow- 
brained philanthropy. 

♦. 
Section 3 — Government, Protective. — We will now 
suppose the offender conquered, subdued, reformed. 
flis willfulness has yielded, and his wicked purposes 
are abanaoned. His anger ceases, and he submits 
willingly, cheerfully, lovingly. What now is the duty 
of government toward him? Will it answer to turn 
him loose without protection, as one who has simply 



240 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

paid a penalty and is free from further obligation ; or 
to say to him, "There, now take care of yourself; there 
is no further danger?" Will it accomplish the ends 
of government to abandon him thus and expose him 
to all the temptations that caused him to fall in the 
first place ? I know our State governments do this 
in too many instances. Convicts are discharged from 
prison without a single safeguard ; but they are rather 
weakened, disgraced, destitute, demoralized, and yet 
exposed to all the temptations of former crime. But 
what does the sequel show ? How many recommit- 
ments ! How few really reform, and how few of that 
number stay reformed under these circumstances i 
But this is but too sad a commentary upon the weak- 
ness of human law, but still more perhaps upon the 
inefficiency of our law-making powers. 

In all rightly constituted governments, the offender, 
after suffering the penalty due to his crime, if he be 
not entirely cast off, and if he be not beyond the 
reach of reformation, is supposed to be convalescent. 
If he is not, justice has not done its whole duty. 
Now what is the true relation the government sus- 
tains toward him ? He is supposed to be weak and 
powerless, or at least, entirely subject, to the influ- 
ences which have conquered him. This may have 
been the work of a day, a month, an hour, or a year. 
It may have been accomplished by moral, intellectual 
or physical means, or all combined : still these condi- 
tions and influences exist always in the same ratio. 
Instead, therefore, of casting him out to fall again, or 
of withholding its supporting influence from him, it 
takes him up in its arms of sympathy, and only ex- 
poses him as his powers are able to endure exposure. 
He now sustains a relation to government similar to 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 241 

that which a new subject experiences. lie needs pro- 
tection, instruction, education, encouragement, sym- 
pathy and watchfulness. This want should be the 
special care of the government, and solicitude of the 
teacher. If there is one object in all the school that 
deserves more special attention than any other, it is 
that poor unfortunate who has fallen, and now lies, as 
it were, bleeding at the feet of mercy, flung there by 
the hand of justice. Justice has had its demand ; and, 
in executing its claims, it has wrought the necessary 
repentance, and brought the offender within the reach 
of mercy. Therefore let the government that smote 
him down, lift him up. Let it reinstate him in its 
favor and fellowship, and grant him all the immuni- 
ties, claimed and enjoyed by other subjects. 

Article 2— Qualifications and Requisites. 

We have thus far considered government with ref- 
erence to its conservative, reformative and protective 
characteristics, chiefly as they relate to the school. In 
doing this, it became necessary to make frequent al- 
lusions to the qualifications and requisites of the gov- 
erning power, and also to the mode of administering 
it. This was contemplated in the beginning. It only 
becomes necessary now to revert briefly to those 
points for the purpose of showing their connection 
and completing a list of topics in a uniform order. 

Section 1 — Legislative Talent. — In order to carry 
forward the objects of government, legislative talent 
is necessary. Laws are to be enacted, and a general 
provision established for regulating and running the 
machinery. The teacher does not usually find these 
provisions at hand, any further than the general prin- 
21 



242 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

ciples and common usage afford them. From these, 
and from his own judgment and knowledge of men 
and things, he must manufacture or frame a code to 
guide him in the management of his internal affairs. 
He therefore discharges the functions of a legislator 
to all intents and purposes. In this capacity, no 
knowledge will be more valuable to him than self- 
knowledge, or that which gives an insight into human 
nature and the motives and modes of human action. 
With these commodities, he is expected to operate. 
These forces he must provide for and control. The 
more familiar, therefore, he becomes with human na- 
ture in all its phases and aspects, the better. 

He should possess shrewdness, foresight, penetration, 
that he may be able to anticipate and provide for the 
emergencies and difficulties which must necessarily 
arise in a perverted state of society. These are talents 
that characterize all good legislators. They might be 
embodied in that excellent quality spoken of by the 
wise man when he says : " A prudent man foreseeth 
the evil and hideth himself," etc. These qualities, 
joined with deliberation, are the opposites of precipi- 
tancy and rashness in the enactment or repeal of 
laws, the inauguration of a new policy, or a change in 
the general management. In all legislative proceed- 
ings, there is no quality more necessary, or that will 
add more weight to such proceedings, than a due exer- 
cise of caution and deliberation. There is constant 
danger of conflict from the various interests to be rep- 
resented and consulted. Therefore, no law should be 
enacted or repealed, no change in the policy or general 
management be made, without first consulting all 
these interests, and weighing all the consequences. 

Again : for the various emergencies that arise, both 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 248 

in legislating in and administering the affairs of gov- 
ernment, there is a constant and urgent demand for 
that kind of talent denominated by Mr. Locke, " good 
round-about common sense." It is possessed to a very 
limited extent by some of the most gifted. Indeed, 
notwithstanding it is " common sense," it is a rare ac- 
complishment. Hence many possessing qualities that 
would render them successful in many departments of 
business, would fail, if submitted to the severe test of 
governing and teaching; since to do these things 
well, requires greater versatility of talent than al- 
most any other employment. This last arises from 
the fact that almost all other employments are repre- 
sented in right teaching. There is therefore a neces- 
sity here for a universal talent, or the faculty of adjust- 
ing the means to the ends to be accomplished, in a 
great variety of ways, and in a great many departments 
of business. 

Section 2— Judicial Ability. — Laws are to be pub- 
lished and expounded. All must be notified of their 
existence ; their scope and meaning must be limited 
and explained by the teacher or the government. 
Hence arises another function of the teacher. He con- 
stitutes the judiciary, and to his tribunal must be re- 
ferred all cases of difficult or doubtful interpretation. 
In addition to many other good qualities requisite 
here, we might name good judgment, or the ability to 
discriminate in difficult and complicated cases. It re- 
sults, it is true, in a great degree, from a comprehensive 
knowledge of the "various forces of human nature. 
Cases are continually arising for adjudication, that will 
tax to the utmost the teacher's discriminating powers. 
It is highly important that all his decisions be as near- 



244 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

ly correct as possible, so that there be no necessity for 
revision or appeal. The teacher, therefore, needs time 
for deliberation. He should not be hasty in his decis- 
ions. 

Again : all decisions should be rendered in as plain 
and explicit terms as possible. They should be so 
pointed that but one interpretation may be reduced 
from them, yet not binding or committing the teacher 
to any unpleasant alternative .or unwise policy. Am- 
biguity often leads to misapprehension, and uninten- 
tional error, and leaves a given policy exposed where 
perhaps it was intended to guard it. There should 
therefore be a fair and distinct understanding: in ret- 
erence to the common duties of the school. 

It also stands a teacher in hand to be^rm. After a 
conclusion has been fairly reached, and the decision 
made known, it should not be changed for any ordi- 
nary cause. A case in which any change would be 
admissible, must be one in which a greater difficulty 
will result from adhering to it than from any modifica- 
tion. But there is a vast difference between firmness 
and obstinacy. The one never yields the truth : the 
other seldom yields to it. 

Section 3 — Executive Authority. — Laws must be 
enforced as well as enacted and expounded. This 
gives rise to the third function of government, viz., 
the Executive. This department sometimes becomes 
the most difficult, owing chiefly to two causes : 1, the 
inadequacy or want of adaptation of the laws to be en- 
forced; 2, the inefficiency of the executive power. 

A good system of laws, with poor executive talent, 
would be about as inefficient, as poor laws would be 
with good executive talent. One of the leading char- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 245 

acteristics in good executive officers, is energy, or in- 
ternal force. It takes up the decisions as soon as ren- 
dered, and infuses life into them by putting them in 
progress of execution. Promptness to execute, is a 
rare gift ; but it acquires additional strength and force 
when it is exercised in the affairs of the school-room. 
This quality has been noticed elsewhere in this book. 
In executing the demands of government, so effect- 
ually does it call into exercise the powers of the 
mind, and so engaged do they sometimes become, that 
there is great danger of arousing the passions ; hence 
what is needed here, is determination without 'passion or 
undue excitement. Again: the nature of the penalties 
is such that there will be a constant demand for 
sy?npathy and generosity. The very act of controlling 
or executing the laws, unless checked by a counter 
influence, is apt to degenerate into indifference or ar- 
rogance. The necessity for the exercise of these 
virtues will be seen from what has been said else- 
where. 

Article 3— qualifications and Methods. 

The means to be employed and the methods of 
application may be briefly summed up thus: — 

Section 1— Personal Worth. This may include 
a great many good qualities, but refers mainly to 
strength of mind and force of character. These con- 
stitute the most potent influences in the control of 
human beings. We instinctively yield a tribute of 
respect to talent, wherever found, but especially if 
found associated with high moral powers. 

Personal worth may exhibit itself in various ways, 
among which are personal appearance and general 



246 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

demeanor. These are well calculated to make favor- 
able impressions. No one can disguise the fact that 
a commanding appearance, neatness and cleanliness 
of person and habits, combined with a gentle and 
modest demeanor, will command respect everywhere; 
while their opposites, even if associated with the most 
brilliant talents, will fail to produce the good results 
desired. 

The accomplishments, ease and elegance in address, 
highly cultivated social qualities, and the vivacity and 
cheerfulness arising from good health and physical 
culture, can not fail to constitute a ready passport to 
almost all hearts. 

Section 2 — Self-Control. — Again : the very fac- 
ulty, whose cultivation is so strongly recommended 
under the head of " objects," viz., " Self-Control," is 
one of the strongest means of governing that exists. 
A man can never regulate and direct successfully the 
forces in others, until he first regulates and controls 
those within himself. In this, again, may be seen the 
self-perpetuating nature of government. 

There will be frequent, and indeed almost a con- 
stant, demand for the exercise of moderation and for- 
bearance in matters pertaining to the administration 
of the affairs of government ; moderation in our views 
and expectations — for children are subject to tempta- 
tions for which we are disposed to make too little 
allowance, and forbearance for their weaknesses and 
short-comings. 

Favoritism in the school-room is sadly out of place, 
whatever may be its imaginary utility. In the ad- 
ministration of affairs pertaining to teaching, there 
must be an entire devotion to truth, and an equal dis- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 247 

tribution of favors and restraints, irrespective of any 
personal preferences or feelings. This will be a diffi- 
cult task for many, and perhaps for all. So strong 
are the likes and dislikes of our nature, and so un- 
consciously and necessarily will certain qualities of 
mind and body win their way into our regard, that 
it will require more than an ordinary share of watch- 
fulness in order to avoid biases in our judgment, and 
partiality in the administration of the affairs of the 
school-room. But disinterestedness, and an earnest de- 
votion to truth, should mark all our intercourse with 
pupils. 

In the administration of justice, there should be no 
hesitation or trepidation, or want of firmness or decis- 
ion of character manifested by the teacher. The pur- 
poses should be well formed, and then executed with 
that confidence which the cause of truth, and the love 
of truth and the right alone can inspire. There 
should, however, be no affected confidence, nor over- 
weening assurance. It should be tempered with be- 
coming modesty and humility. This will inspire con- 
fidence in the hearts of the pupils for their teacher, 
and strengthen that bond of union so necessary be- 
tween the governor and the governed. 

Section 3 — General Management. — We conclude 
with a few words in reference to general management, 
which will refer, in some measure to every depart- 
ment of school-room duties, but especially to the mat- 
ters of governing. 

In addition to other qualities and means already 
alluded to, fidelity and integrity should mark every 
transaction. It will not add either to the dignity or 
influence of the teacher, to make large promises or 



248 THE ART OF TEACHING. 

threats without a moral certainty, at least, of fulfilling 
them. Therefore let him avoid every thing, in his 
intercourse with pupils, that will have a tendency 
either to raise their expectations or excite their fears, 
beyond a healthy degree of interest : or that would, in 
case of unavoidable failure, or disappointment, destroy 
the confidence in his fidelity and integrity. 

Let him manifest a zeal and devotion in the perform- 
ance of every duty, and in the interest and welfare of 
his pupils, that w 7 ill convince them that he is at once 
their best friend and benefactor, and abundantly able 
to reward the good and punish the* bad. In all mat- 
ters where punishment of any kind is to be inflicted, 
let him not forget its great objects, and that justice, 
mingled with mercy is the divinest exhibition of the In- 
finite Mind we have on record ; that the more closely 
he can imitate this superhuman pattern, the more 
nearly he fulfills the conditions of a perfect system of 
rewards and punishments; that no law should be enact- 
ed for the punishment of offenders, that does not look 
to their reformation as the. one great central idea; and 
that no penalty, however trifling or severe, should 
be inflicted merely for the penalty's sake, much less to 
gratify revenge. 

Lastly: let mildness of maimer., coupled with severity 
of purpose, mark all his demeanor and intercourse 
with pupils ; but more especially in those cases in which 
he is called upon to perform that most difficult and 
dangerous task, viz., the administration of punish- 
ment. And above all things, let him put his trust in 
Almighty God — the great and only disposer of events, 
— that he may be guided in the most arduous and 
responsible duty ever conferred upon mortals — The 
Education of Human Beings. 



Eclecti c Educational Series. 
ANDREWS'S 

Elementary Geology. 

An Elementary Geology. Designed especially for the 
Interior States. i2mo., cloth, 283 pp. 

By E. B. ANDREWS, LL.D. 

432 New and Attractive Illustrations. 

The distinctive feature of Andrews's Elementary 
Geology is its limitations. It is designed for students 
and readers of the Interior States, and for such has its 
chief references to home geology. The simplicity and 
regularity of the geological formations in these States 
render them singularly fitted to be illustrations of the 
science, and, moreover, the formations are rich in fossils 
beyond those of most other parts of the world. By thus 
limiting the scope of the work, it is believed that a much 
better book for beginners has been made than if far more 
had been attempted. 

The order of rocks is fully given; and the more im- 
portant facts in the economical geology are given, in view 
of the large areas of coal-fields, the iron, copper, lead 
and zinc mines in the Interior States. 

Of the four hundred and thirty-two illustrations prob- 
ably three-fourths have never appeared in any text-book 
before. They have been selected from official Geologi- 
cal Reports and from similar sources of the highest 
scientific authority. A very considerable number of 
them are entirely new, having been drawn by the author 
or under his immediate supervision. 

Andrews's Geology will be found useful not only to stu- 
dents, as a text-book, but to all persons who desire to read 
intelligently the several State Geological Reports ; to such 
persons it will serve as a simple, cheap manual and the only 
expla?iatory work of the kind published. 

Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and new York. 



E clect ic Educational Series. 

Bartholomew's Latin Series. 

BY G. K. BARTHOLOMEW, A. M. 

Bartholomew's Latin Grammar. 
Bartholomew's Graded Lessons in Latin. 
Bartholomew's Caesar. 

The principles and laws of the Latin Language, as established by 
the standard authorities, and illuminated by the most recent discoveries 
of comparative philology, arranged in a concise and teachable form. 

The treatment of the subject of Latin Grammar in this new series 
is a departure from, the old methods in some important respects, to 
which attention is urgently invited. 

Lt has been the almost unanimous judgment of the many experienced 
instructors who have examined and are using Bartholomew's Latin 
Series, that the changes from the old forms, and the omission of a 
vast amount of superfluous matter are decided improvements ; that the 
author lias greatly simplified the labor of both teacher and student ; and 
that he has presented the subject in more inviting form than has pre- 
vailed in the text-books heretofore in use. 



Dartmouth College — Prof. E. D. Sanborn says: 

" Bartholomew's Latin Grammar exhibits extensive research, 
critical analysis, and judicious arrangement. The doctrine of the 
subjunctive mode, the most difficult topic in Latin Grammar, is 
treated with marked ability. 

" The Caesar shows many of the same excellences — thorough 
scholarskip, and accurate translations. It is all that the young 
student needs for a just appreciation of the Gallic War." 

Amherst College — Prof. W. S. Tyler: 

"Among the features that please me, I may specify the nat- 
ural order of arrangement and scientific treatment of subjects; 
the unusually full and careful analysis and derivation of words; 
the principles and practice of analyzing sentences ; the excellent 
manner in which the modes and tenses are handled, particularly 
the subjunctive mode; and the pains taken to bring the Gram- 
mar up to the present state of the science of language." 

University of Michigan — Prof. II. S. Frieze: 

"I am exceedingly well ple.ised with Bartholmew's Caesar: it 
is satisfactory in every respect — in scholarly merit, in adaptation 
to the wants of young students in Latin, and in typographical ex- 
ecution. I have been much plensed also with the Latin Grammar." 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG 6- CO., CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK. 



Eclectic Educational Series. 

Thalheimer's Historical Series. 

BY M. E. THALHEIMER 

Thalheimer's History of England. i2mo„ cloth, 288 pp. 

Numerous Maps and Pictorial Illustrations. 
Thalheimer's General History. 121110., cloth, 355 pp. 

Numerous Maps and Pictorial Illustrations. 

Thalheimer's Ancient History. 8vc, cloth, 365 pp. 

With Pronouncing Vocabulary and Index. Illustrated with Engravings, 
Maps, and Charts. 

Thalheimer's Mediaeval and Modern History. 8vo., cloth. 

Uniform with Thalheimer's Ancient History. 455 pp., and full Indexr- 
Numerous double page Ma; s. 

In compliance with a demand for separate Histories of the 
Early Eastern Monarchies of Greece and of Rome, the Pub- 
lishers announce an edition of Thalheimer's Manual of Ancient 
History in three Parts, viz : 

1. THALHEIMER'S HISTORY OF EARLY EASTERN MON- 

ARCHIES. 

2. THALHEIMER'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 

3. THALHEIMER'S HISTORY OF ROME. 

The First embraces the Pre-classical Period and that of Per- 
sian Ascendency. 

The Second, Greece and the Macedonian Empires. 

The Third, Rome as Kingdom, Republic and Empire. 

Each part sufficiently full and comprehensive for the Academic and 
University Course. Liberally illustrated with accurate Alaps. 8vo., 
full cloth. 

For convenience the numbering of pages and chapters corre- 
sponds with that of Thalheimer's Ancient History, so that these 
separate volumes can be used in classes partially supplied with 
the complete work. 

Superintendents, Principals and Teachers of History are in- 
vited to correspond with the publishers in regard to the introduc- 
tion of Thalheimer's Histories. 

// is generally conceded by the Press and Leading Educators that 
Thalheimci 's Histories are unequaled by any similar publications. 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK. 



Eclectic Educational Series. 

Hepburn's Rhetoric. 

A Manual of English Rhetoric, by A.®. HEPBURN, 
(Professor in (Davidson College, N . C. 

Designed to meet the wants of classes in High Schools 
and Colleges. The principles of pure English Rhetoric 
are stated briefly and exemplified ; the instructor can ex- 
pand, modify, and apply them according to the require- 
ments of his classes. Adapted to instruction by Sections 
or by Topics. 121110., 288 pp. 

CONTENTS. 

Introduction. — Definition, Aim and Method of Study, 
and Distribution of Rhetoric. 

Part I. The Processes Conversant About the Mat- 
ter of a Discourse. — Chapter I : The Subject of 
a Discourse. Chap. II : Invention. Chap. Ill : 
Disposition. Chap. IV : Amplification. 

Part II. Style. — Chap. I: Qualities of Prose Style. 
Chap. II : Choice of -Words. Chap. Ill : Figures 
of Speech. Chap. IV: The Sentence. Chap. V: 
The Paragraph. Chap. VI : Division of style. 

Part III. The Elementary Forms of Discourse. — 
Chap. I: Description. Chap. II: Narration. Chap. 
Ill: Exposition. Chap. IV: Argument. 

Part IV. The Principal Forms of Prose. — Chap. 
I : The Dialogue and Epistolary Prose. Chap. II : 
Didactic Prose. Chap. Ill : Historical Prose. Chap 
IV : Oratorical Prose. 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK. 



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